Functional modification of cassava starch using clean label technologies: Heat moisture treatment, annealing, and atmospheric pressure plasma jet

Introduction

Tuber crops are vital for global food security as rich sources of starch, offering affordable and sustainable energy to low-income populations. Among them, cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) holds particular significance as a climate resilient crop capable of thriving in marginal soils and drought prone regions, thereby supporting the livelihoods of more than 800 million people worldwide. Cassava's remarkable versatility spans food applications such as starch, flour, and chips as well as industrial uses in bioethanol, bioplastics, and adhesives. Its production continues to expand steadily in major cassava growing countries including Nigeria, Thailand, and Brazil [1] . Despite its considerable potential, native cassava starch is hindered by functional limitations including low solubility, poor freeze-thaw stability, and inconsistent pasting properties that limit its application in specialized food formulations. Although various modification techniques have been investigated, clean-label, energyefficient, and multifunctional starches remain in high demand [2] . Cassava production continues to expand, led by Nigeria, Thailand, and Brazil, with advancements in breeding and processing technologies enhancing its value for both food and industrial applications [3] . Cassava is a major starchy root crop and one of the world's primary calorie sources, achieved global production of approximately 330 million tonnes in 2022, led by Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Thailand.

In India, it is predominantly cultivated in the southern states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh across 1.7-1.8 lakh ha, yielding 6.2-6.9 million tonnes annually at an average productivity of 35-37 t/ha substantially exceeding the global average. Cassava's high starch content and gluten free nature make it valuable for foods such as boiled roots, tapioca pearls, cassava flour in bakery products, and as a thickener or sweetener. Clean, non-chemical modification methods such as heat-moisture treatment (HMT), annealing (ANN), and atmospheric pressure plasma jet (APPJ) enable precise tuning of cassava starch functionality without damaging granules or introducing reagents. HMT enhances molecular interactions under limited moisture and heat, raising gelatinization temperature, pasting stability, and resistant starch content. ANN, applied below the gelatinization point, refines crystallinity and reduces swelling for improved stability. APPJ alters surface structure and reactivity, boosting water binding and functional properties. Together, these techniques offer environmentally friendly control over solubility, viscosity, and freeze-thaw stability. Applying them to Sree Reksha cassava starch can reveal its unique functional potential and support broader, cleaner applications in the food industry. Jyothi et al. (2010) [4] investigated the hydrothermal modification of tropical tuber starches through heat-moisture treatment (HMT) to assess its impact on physicochemical, rheological, and gelatinization characteristics. The study reported that HMT markedly reduced peak viscosity, caused only a slight decrease in breakdown viscosity, and significantly increased starch solubility across all treated samples. In a subsequent study, [5] investigated the effects of annealing (ANN) on similar tuber starches to evaluate alterations in their physicochemical, gelatinization, and rheological properties. The researchers reported a narrowing of the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) endothermic transitions across all starch types and a reduction in solubility, most notably in cassava starch, following the annealing treatment. Kaur et al. (2024) [6] reported that atmospheric pressure plasma jet (APPJ) treatment significantly altered the rheological and gelling behavior of finger millet starch through mechanisms such as depolymerization, cross-linking, and functional group incorporation. The treatment reduced peak viscosity and enhanced paste clarity, indicating partial structural disruption. Moderate treatment levels (170-200 V) improved gel strength due to the formation of intermediate amylose chains and carbonyl group interactions, whereas excessive treatment (230 V) caused pronounced depolymerization and a weakened gel matrix. Heat-moisture treatment (HMT), annealing (ANN), and APPJ are eco-friendly physical methods that enable precise control over starch functionality without using chemicals. HMT enhances resistant starch content and thermal stability, ANN improves crystallinity and reduces swelling, and APPJ increases surface reactivity and hydration capacity. Applying these clean label modifications to Sree Reksha cassava starch presents opportunities for developing novel, stable, and functional food ingredients with customized physicochemical properties. These eco-friendly modification techniques maintain native starch integrity and are well suited for developing functional food ingredients, including those derived from the high starch yielding Sree Reksha cassava cultivar [7] . The present work systematically examines the comparative effects of heat-moisture treatment (HMT), annealing (ANN), and atmospheric pressure plasma jet (APPJ) on native starch extracted from the cultivar Sree Reksha (ICAR-CTCRI). The study aims to elucidate how these physical modifications influence key physicochemical and functional attributes such as solubility, swelling power, water and oil absorption capacities, pasting behavior, and freeze-thaw stability to guide targeted food applications.

Materials and Methods

Raw materials

Native starch was extracted from matured cassava tubers of the Sree Reksha cultivar, harvested from the research farm of ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala (Latitude: 8°18′ N to 12°48′ N, Longitude: 74°52′ E to 77°22′ E).

Extraction of cassava starch

The starch was extracted from freshly harvested cassava tubers following the standard procedure described by Krishnakumar and Sajeev. The tubers were thoroughly washed, hand-peeled, and mechanically cut into small pieces, which were then crushed using ICAR-CTCR mobile starch extraction unit with sufficient water. The slurry obtained was filtered through a 150 µm sieve and allowed to settle overnight in a tank. After sedimentation, the supernatant water was decanted, and the starch cake was washed three times with ample water to obtain a bright white product. The purified starch was then spread on aluminum trays and dried in a tray dryer (LabTech Instruments, LT-DR-50) at 45-50 °C for 12 hours. The dried starch, adjusted to a moisture content of 10-12% (dry basis), was stored in airtight containers for subsequent treatments and analyses. The extraction process is illustrated in Figure 1.

Experimental Treatments of cassava starch 2.3.1 Heat moisture treatment

Heat moisture treatment of cassava starch was conducted as per the method explained by Jyothi et al. (2010) [4] , Liu et al. (2015) [9] . Heat-moisture treatment (HMT) was conducted using a Box-Behnken RSM design under different temperature, time and moisture levels: 100, 120, and 140 °C for 8, 10, 12 hours at 25 % (w.b.) moisture, and 110, 130, 150 °C for 13, 15, 17 hours at 30 % (w.b.) moisture levels. Cassava starch samples were prepared at 25 % and 30 % (w/w) moisture contents, selected to achieve optimal viscosity for uniform heat transfer and molecular reorganization, while reflecting concentrations relevant to food applications. The initial moisture content of the native starch was determined and adjusted to the desired level by gradually adding measured amounts of distilled water with thorough mixing to prevent lump formation. The conditioned starch samples were evenly spread in stainless steel containers and subjected to controlled heating in an air oven at the specified temperature and duration according to the experimental design. After treatment, samples were cooled to ambient temperature and subsequently dried at 50-55 °C until the moisture content reached 6-8 % (w.b.). The processed samples were designated as HMT-25 % and HMT-30 %. The experimental workflow is illustrated in Figure 2.

Annealing treatment

The annealing (ANN) treatment procedure was conducted following the method described by Xie et al. (2024) [11] . The key variables considered were temperature, time, and starch-to-water ratio. The experimental design employed a Box-Behnken response surface methodology (RSM) with three temperature levels (40, 50, 60 °C), three incubation times (12, 24, 36 hours), and a starch-to-water ratio of 1:3 (w/v). Cassava starch was mixed with distilled water to obtain slurries with ratios of 1:3 and 1:4 (w/v) and sealed with perforated covers to allow limited moisture exchange. The samples were incubated at the specified temperatures for the designated durations, followed by cooling to room temperature. Subsequently, the starch was dried at 50-55 °C until the moisture content reached 6-8 % (w.b.). The final samples were labelled ANN (1:3) and ANN (1:4). The experimental process is illustrated in Figure 2.

Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jet

APPJ procedure followed the method described by Kaur and Annapure [6] . Twelve grams of cassava starch were uniformly spread on clean Petri plates and exposed to atmospheric pressure plasma jet (APPJ) treatment (Z/54/14, Zeonics Systech, India). The system was equipped with seven plasma jets to ensure uniform distribution of the plasma field. The independent variables investigated were gas flow rate, applied voltage, and treatment time. The experimental design comprised three gas flow rates (50, 60, and 70 L/min), three voltage levels (21, 23, and 25 kV), and three exposure times (5, 10, and 15 min). Treatment conditions were selected based on preliminary trials and system limitations. The APPJ-treated starch samples, with the electrode positioned at a fixed distance of 2 cm above the thin, even layer of starch, were carried out using argon gas to maintain a stable and inert plasma environment. After treatment, the samples were stored in 75 µm polypropylene bags until further characterization and analysis. A schematic of the APPJ setup is illustrated in Figure 3.

Functional properties of cassava starch 2.4.1 Solubility and swelling power

The solubility and swelling power of native and treated starch samples were determined following the methods described by Jyothi et al. (2011) [5] , Krishnakumar and Sajeev [8] , and Liu et al. (2016) [10] . A 0.4 g starch sample was weighed and dispersed in 40 mL of distilled water, then heated in a shaking water bath at 95 °C for 20 min. After cooling, 10 mL of the suspension was transferred into 50 mL centrifuge tubes using a graduated cylinder and centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 20 min. The supernatant was carefully decanted, and the weight of the sediment was recorded. The supernatant was then dried at 105 °C to constant weight, and the mass of the dry solids was determined. The solubility and swelling power were calculated using the following equation.

Water absorption capacity

The water absorption capacity protocol was adapted from Liu et al. ( 2016) [11] . Precisely, 1 g of control or modified starch was mixed with 10 mL of distilled water (density 1 g/mL) in 50 mL Falcon tubes. The slurry was vortexed for 5 min, allowed to stand for 2-3 min, and then centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min. The volume of the supernatant was measured using a 10 mL graduated cylinder. The difference between the initial water volume and the supernatant volume was taken as the absorbed water, and the result was expressed as grams of water absorbed per gram of starch.

Oil absorption capacity

The oil absorption capacity was determined using the procedure described by Liu et al. ( 2016) [11] . Sunflower oil (density 0.92 g/mL) was used as the medium. Precisely, 1 g of control or treated starch was mixed with 10 mL of sunflower oil in a 50 mL Falcon tube and agitated for 5 min using a magnetic stirrer at 1000 rpm. The suspension was allowed to stand for 2-3 min and then centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min. The volume of the supernatant was measured using a 10 mL graduated cylinder. The difference between the initial volume of oil and the volume of the supernatant was taken as the absorbed oil and expressed as grams of oil absorbed per gram of starch.

Pasting properties of starch

The pasting behaviour of native and modified cassava starch samples was evaluated using a Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA-4, Newport Scientific, Warriewood, Australia). Viscosity profiles were generated using starch suspensions prepared by accurately weighing 2.5 g of dry starch into an aluminium canister and adding 22.5 g of distilled water, followed by thorough mixing with a glass rod. The canister was placed in the analyzer and the sample subjected to the standard I-profile at a constant paddle speed of 160 rpm. The heating-cooling cycle comprised ramping the temperature from 50 °C to 95 °C at 12 °C/min, holding at 95 °C for 2 min, cooling back to 50 °C at 12 °C/min, and maintaining at 50 °C for a further 2 min. Pasting parameters such as peak, trough, breakdown, setback, and final viscosities (in Pa.s), peak time (min), and pasting temperature (°C) were recorded from the RVA curves.

Freeze-Thaw stability

Freeze-thaw stability (syneresis) process was determined following the method of Krishnakumar and Sajeev [8] , Cahyana et al. (2019) [13] . A 5 % (w/v) aqueous starch suspension was heated at 95 °C for 30 min with gentle agitation in a shaking water bath, and then cooled to room temperature. A 10 mL aliquot of the paste was transferred into a pre-weighed centrifuge tube and subjected to a freezethaw cycle: frozen at -16 °C for 24 h, followed by thawing at 25 °C for 2 h. The sample was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 min. After centrifugation, the supernatant was carefully decanted and weighed. The percentage of syneresis was calculated using the following equation.

Statistical analysis

Each functional property was analyzed in triplicate to ensure accuracy and reproducibility. Statistical analyses were performed using Design-Expert software (version 25.0) based on Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to evaluate the effects of the different treatments. Graphs were generated using Microsoft Excel and Google Colab. The significance of model terms and treatment effects was assessed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) at p < 0.05).

Results and Discussion

Effect of HMT, ANN, and APPJ on the swelling power and solubility of cassava starch

The effect of the different treatments on the solubility and swelling power of cassava starch at 95 °C is presented in Table 1 and Fig. 5. Solubility increased after HMT and APPJ, with values of 20.5 ± 2.34% (p < 0.05) for HMT-25% and 22.91 ± 3.6% (p < 0.05) for HMT-30%, 23.4 ± 1.55 (p < 0.05) for APPJ, compared with the control 19.1 ± 2.59%. This increase may be attributed to partial molecular disintegration and structural loosening of the starch granules during modification [5,6,14] . The increased solubility of the modified starch enhances its dispersibility in aqueous systems, which can improve texture and stability in food formulations [15,16] . In contrast, annealing significantly reduced solubility to 15.08 ± 0.25% (p < 0.05), indicating development of a more ordered granular structure that resists solubilization. The lower solubility in annealed starch is attributed to strengthened interactions between amylaseamylopectin chains and among amylopectin molecules, which restrict molecular leaching and limit dissolution from the granules. These findings are consistent with previous reports on the effect of annealing on starch solubility [4,5,14,17,18] . The reduced solubility observed after annealing indicates improved starch stability, which is advantageous for thickening applications in canned foods, sauces, and bakery fillings. The various treatments significantly influenced the swelling power of cassava starch. The control sample displayed a significantly higher swelling power (7.07 ± 0.57 g/g, p < 0.01), reflecting its enhanced ability to absorb water at elevated temperatures. HMT treatment reduced the swelling power, with values declining to 6.51 ± 0.96 g/g (p < 0.05) for HMT-25% and further to 6.35 ± 1.64 g/g (p < 0.01) for HMT-30%. This reduction may be attributed to structural reorganization within the crystalline regions of starch, resulting in increased crystallinity, formation of amylase-lipid complexes, stronger interactions between amylose and amylopectin molecules, and reinforced intramolecular bonding, which collectively restrict water penetration during HMT. These observations are consistent with findings reported for common buckwheat [9] , maize [10] , potato and cassava [19] , rice [20] , sorghum [21] , and corn starches [22] . Conversely, starch treated by ANN exhibited a reduction in swelling power compared to the control, as shown in Table 1. This decrease can be attributed to enhanced molecular organization and minimal disruption of the granular structure. Similar trends have been reported for barley [23] , wheat starch [24] , and groundnut [25] . Reduced swelling power contributes to improved starch stability, making it advantageous for high temperature applications such as pasta, noodles, and baked products, where excessive thickening or gelatinization is undesirable. In the APPJtreated sample, solubility increased significantly from 19.1% to 23.4% (p < 0.01), likely due to the action of reactive plasma species that partially degraded or depolymerized starch granules into smaller fragments. It was observed that cold plasma treatment enhanced the solubility of cassava starch under non-pasting conditions. This increase in solubility suggests partial disruption or loss of the starch granule surface structure following APPJ treatment. Similar effects have been reported for wheat starch [18] , corn starch [14,26] , banana starch [27] , and red adzuki bean starch [28] . he enhanced solubility of cassava starch after cold plasma treatment has practical relevance in the food industry, improving its functionality in instant and processed foods. Increased solubility facilitates better dispersion in cold water, making it suitable for applications in instant soups, sauces, beverages, ready to eat meals, and thickening systems. Conversely, a marked reduction in swelling power was observed following APPJ treatment of cassava starch. As shown in Table 1, the swelling degree significantly decreased from 7.07 g/g to 2.65 g/g (p < 0.01) compared to the native starch. This decline could be attributed to partial destruction of starch chains induced by the APPJ process, causing the swollen granules to lose their ability to retain water. Similar findings have been reported for wheat starch [18] , banana starch [27] , and maize starch [29] . The reduced swelling power of starch offers advantages in specific food applications such as instant noodles, soups, confectionery, and meat products, where controlled thickening and textural stability are desirable.

Effect of HMT, ANN, and APPJ on the pasting properties of cassava starch

The pasting properties of cassava starch subjected to different treatments are presented in Table 3, with corresponding pasting curves illustrated in Fig. 4. The treatments significantly affected the pasting parameters, including peak viscosity (PV), trough viscosity (TV), breakdown viscosity (BV), final viscosity (FV), setback viscosity (SV), peak time (PTi), and pasting temperature (PTe). The control starch exhibited a peak viscosity of 3.812 Pa.s, which decreased following HMT-25%, HMT-30%, and APPJ treatments, showing values of 3.267 Pa•s, 3.150 Pa•s, and 3.024 Pa•s (p < 0.01), respectively. The reduction in peak viscosity can be attributed to structural alterations induced by HMT and APPJ, particularly amylose leaching and rearrangement within the granules. In contrast, ANN-treated starch displayed the highest peak viscosity relative to the native starch, indicating that annealing enhanced the swelling ability of starch granules. Trough viscosity, representing the minimum viscosity during heating, increased after treatments, suggesting improved structural stability of the starch granules under heat and shear conditions [30] . Breakdown and setback viscosities decreased significantly following starch modification, indicating improved paste stability. The ANN-treated starch exhibited a high trough viscosity of 1.779 Pa•s and a moderate breakdown viscosity of 2.235 Pa.s, reflecting enhanced swelling and partial structural stability. Final viscosity, which represents the ability of starch to form a gel upon cooling, increased in all treatments, with values exceeding that of the control (1.939 Pa.s). All treatments displayed comparable peak times. However, the pasting temperature decreased slightly in HMT-treated starch (71.80 °C for HMT-25% and 70.95 °C for HMT-30%) compared to the control (72.65 °C), indicating improved gelatinization efficiency due to thermal modification. In contrast, ANN and APPJ treated starches exhibited higher pasting temperatures, suggesting increased resistance to gelatinization, likely resulting from the formation of a more ordered starch structure and strengthened molecular interactions. After plasma treatment, a noticeable change in viscosity was observed. During plasma exposure, both depolymerization and cross-linking reactions occur simultaneously and competitively. Reactive plasma species can weaken molecular bonds within starch, leading to depolymerization and granule disruption, which in turn reduces viscosity [32][33][34] . These findings are consistent with previous reports on cassava [4,5] , potato starches [35] , banana starch [36] , corn starch [14] . Reduced viscosity enhances processability and allows better texture control in batters, soups, beverages, and gluten-free formulations by preventing excessive thickening. Conversely, increased viscosity improves thickening, gelling, and stability, making starch suitable for use in sauces, soups, dairy, and bakery fillings. The freezethaw stability (syneresis) of cassava starch samples, expressed as the amount of water released after repeated freeze-thaw cycles, is presented in Table 2 and Fig. 5. The results indicate that the stability of cassava starch improved significantly after HMT, ANN, and APPJ treatments compared with the native starch. The control sample exhibited the highest syneresis among all treatments, showing a progressive decrease in stability due to the pronounced retrogradation tendency of native starch, where re-association of starch chains during freezing results in water expulsion upon thawing. HMT markedly improved freeze-thaw stability, with HMT-30% displaying the lowest syneresis value (14.8 ± 0.19%, p < 0.01). This improvement can be attributed to structural changes induced by HMT, including enhanced interchain interactions and reduced amylopectin mobility, which help suppress retrogradation. HMT-25% also exhibited improved stability, though to a lesser extent than HMT-30%. These findings align with previous reports on potato [35] and legume starches [37] . Annealing resulted in intermediate freeze-thaw stability, with syneresis values lower than the control but slightly higher than those of the HMT-treated samples. ANN-treated starch exhibited syneresis values of 15.58 ± 0.34% (p < 0.05) and 18.05 ± 0.05% (p < 0.01) for ANN 1:3 and 1:4, respectively. The improvement in stability can be attributed to increased molecular order and reduced amylose leaching induced by the annealing process. Similar observations have been reported for barley starch. In the case of APPJ treatment, starch showed a significant reduction in syneresis to 17.48 ± 0.35% (p < 0.05) compared with the untreated control [6] . Overall, HMT particularly HMT 30% proved most effective in enhancing the freezethaw stability of cassava starch, while annealing provided moderate improvements. These findings underscore the potential of these modification techniques to reduce syneresis in starch-based products, thereby extending their applicability in frozen and refrigerated food formulations. Modified starch samples demonstrated stronger interactions between water and hydroxyl groups compared with the unmodified starch. During modification, hydrogen bonds within the starch were disrupted, causing slight expansion of the amorphous regions and increased hydrophilicity, which facilitated greater water absorption [39] . These findings are consistent with reports on maize [10] , red sorghum [39] , potato and wheat [40] starches. Oil absorption capacity (OAC) decreased significantly after HMT, ANN, and APPJ treatments, with values declining to 1.75 ± 0.27 g/g for HMT-25%, 1.73 ± 0.33 g/g for HMT-30%, and 2.44 ± 0.40 g/g for APPJ, compared with 2.61 ± 0.45 g/g in the control. This reduction may be attributed to decreased surface hydrophobicity and a lower number of non-polar binding sites on the granule surface following HMT and APPJ treatments. Similar findings have been reported for red sorghum starch [39] and rice starch [41] .

In contrast, ANN treated starch showed only a moderate decrease in OAC, suggesting partial retention of oil-binding capacity. Previous studies have reported comparable results for pea [11] and maize starches [10] . Oil absorption capacity (OAC) decreased significantly after HMT, ANN, and APPJ with values dropping to 1.75 ± 0.27 g/g (HMT-25%), 1.73 ± 0.33 g/g (HMT-30%), and 2.44±0.40 g/g (APPJ) compared to the control (2.61 ± 0.45 g/g). This reduction can be linked to reduced surface hydrophobicity and fewer non-polar binding sites on the granule surface post HMT and APPJ previous results agreed in case of red sorghum starch [39] and rice starch [41] . Conversely, ANN treated starch exhibited a moderate reduction in OAC, suggesting partial retention of oil-binding capacity. Earlier consequences showed similar in pea [11] , and maize starches [10] . Higher water absorption capacity improves moisture retention in baked goods and meat products, enhancing texture and shelf life, while reduced oil absorption capacity benefits low fat dressings and fried snacks.

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that heat moisture treatment (HMT), annealing (ANN), and atmospheric pressure plasma jet (APPJ) significantly modify the physicochemical properties of cassava starch. HMT and APPJ treatments increased solubility and reduced swelling power, while peak viscosity decreased under HMT and APPJ but increased following ANN. The treatments enhanced water absorption capacity while reducing oil absorption capacity, indicating altered molecular interactions within the starch matrix. Numerical optimization revealed optimal conditions of HMT-25% at 140 °C for 12 h (desirability = 0.999) and HMT-30% at 150 °C for 17 h (desirability = 0.999). For ANN treatments, the optimal conditions were ANN 1:3 at 40 °C for 12 h (desirability = 0.963) and ANN 1:4 at 40 °C for 36 h (desirability = 0.944). The APPJ treatment was optimized at 50 L/min gas flow rate, 25 kV voltage, and 5 min treatment time (desirability = 0.913). The regression models exhibited high significance (p < 0.01) and excellent fit, with R² values ranging from 0.85 to 0.99 and low prediction errors (<2%), confirming the models' strong predictability, validity, and reliability. These findings highlight the effectiveness of HMT, ANN, and APPJ in enhancing the functional properties of cassava starch for diverse food industry applications. As physical modification techniques, these methods eliminate the need for chemical agents, offering a safe and sustainable approach to tailoring starch functionality for specific food requirements. Future research should explore molecular and structural characterization, advanced physical modification techniques (e.g., extrusion, radiation, mechanical treatment, and pulsed electric fields), and practical food industry applications to further enhance cassava starch performance.

Novelty of the research

The primary aim of this research was to modify the physicochemical properties of cassava starch using HMT, ANN, and APPJ to develop enhanced functional ingredients for food industry applications.

Acknowledgement

Acknowledgment: NilFunding: Nil

References

1. Binang WB, et al. Improving the yield and nutritional quality of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) in the rainforest agro-ecological zone of southeast Nigeria through agronomic biofortification with micronutrients. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 2024:1-10.
2. Kando K, Bitane B. Cultivation of cassava (Manihot esculenta C.) with selected legumes for growth, yield and economic advantages as climate change mitigations. International Journal of Smart Agriculture. 2023;1(1):1-10.
3. Malik AI, et al. Cassava breeding and agronomy in Asia: 50 years of history and future directions. Breeding Science. 2020;70(2):145-166.
4. Jyothi AN, Sajeev MS, Sreekumar JN. Hydrothermal modifications of tropical tuber starches. I. Effect of heat-moisture treatment on the physicochemical, rheological and gelatinization characteristics. StarchStärke. 2010;62(1):28-40.
5. Jyothi AN, Sajeev MS, Sreekumar J. Hydrothermal modifications of tropical tuber starches: effect of annealing on the physicochemical, rheological and gelatinization characteristics. Starch-Stärke. 2011;63(9):536-549.
6. Kaur P, Annapure US. Rheological and gelling properties of atmospheric pressure cold plasma treated finger millet (Eleusine coracana) starch. Food Research International. 2024;187:114418.
7. Park S, Kim YR. Clean label starch: production, physicochemical characteristics, and industrial applications. Food Science and Biotechnology. 2021;30(1):1-17.
8. Krishnakumar T, Sajeev M. Effect of ultrasound treatment on physicochemical and functional properties of cassava starch. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2018;7(10):31223135.
9. Liu H, et al. Changes in physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of common buckwheat starch by heat-moisture treatment and annealing. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2015;132:237-244.
10. Liu H, et al. Comparative study: how annealing and heat-moisture treatment affect the digestibility, textural, and physicochemical properties of maize starch. StarchStärke. 2016;68(11-12):1158-1168.
11. Xie S, et al. Reducing oil absorption in pea starch through two-step annealing with varying temperatures. Food Hydrocolloids. 2024;150:109701.
12. Agnes A, Felix E, Ugochukwu N. Morphology, rheology and functional properties of starch from cassava, sweet potato and cocoyam. Asian Journal of Biology. 2017;3(3):1-13.
13. Cahyana Y, et al. The effect of different thermal modifications on slowly digestible starch and physicochemical properties of green banana flour (Musa acuminata Colla). Food Chemistry. 2019;274:274-280.
14. Wu TY, et al. Changes in physicochemical properties of corn starch upon modifications by atmospheric pressure plasma jet. Food Chemistry. 2019;283:46-51.
15. Romero-Rosales M, et al. Functionality and modifications of food hydrocolloids: an approach to starch. Starch-Stärke. 2025;77(9):e70083.
16. Chen S, et al. Modification of starch by polysaccharides in pasting, rheology, texture and in vitro digestion: a review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2022;207:81-89.
17. da Rosa Zavareze E, Dias ARG. Impact of heatmoisture treatment and annealing in starches: a review. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2011;83(2):317-328.
18. Ji H, et al. Effect of atmospheric pressure plasma jet on the structure and physicochemical properties of wheat starch. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2024;11:1386778.
19. Gunaratne A, Hoover R. Effect of heat-moisture treatment on the structure and physicochemical properties of tuber and root starches. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2002;49(4):425-437.
20. Hormdok R, Noomhorm A. Hydrothermal treatments of rice starch for improvement of rice noodle quality. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2007;40(10):1723-1731.
21. Olayinka OO, Adebowale KO, Olu-Owolabi BI. Effect of heat-moisture treatment on physicochemical properties of white sorghum starch. Food Hydrocolloids. 2008;22(2):225-230.
22. Chung HJ, Liu Q, Hoover R. Impact of annealing and heat-moisture treatment on rapidly digestible, slowly digestible and resistant starch levels in native and gelatinized corn, pea and lentil starches. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2009;75(3):436-447.
23. Waduge R, et al. Effect of annealing on the structure and physicochemical properties of barley starches of varying amylose content. Food Research International. 2006;39(1):59-77.
24. Lan H, et al. Impact of annealing on the molecular structure and physicochemical properties of normal, waxy and high amylose bread wheat starches. Food Chemistry. 2008;111(3):663-675.
25. Adebowale K, Lawal O. Effect of annealing and heat moisture conditioning on the physicochemical characteristics of Bambarra groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea) starch. Food/Nahrung. 2002;46(5):311316.
26. Bie P, et al. Structural characteristics and rheological properties of plasma-treated starch. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies. 2016;34:196-204.
27. Yan SL, et al. Improved solubility of banana starch by dielectric barrier discharge plasma treatment. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2020;55(2):641-648.
28. Ge X, et al. The improving effects of cold plasma on multi-scale structure, physicochemical and digestive properties of dry-heated red adzuki bean starch. Food Chemistry. 2021;349:129159.
29. Yan Y, et al. Effect of plasma-activated water on the structure and in vitro digestibility of waxy and normal maize starches during heat-moisture treatment. Food Chemistry. 2020;306:125589.
30. Rashwan AK, et al. Plant starch extraction, modification, and green applications: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters. 2024;22(5):24832530.
31. Wongsagonsup R, et al. Modification of tapioca starch by non-chemical route using jet atmospheric argon plasma. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2014;102:790-798.
32. Zhu F. Plasma modification of starch. Food Chemistry. 2017;232:476-486.
33. Ma S, Jiang H. The effect of cold plasma on starch: structure and performance. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2024;340:122254.
34. Gupta RK, Guha P, Srivastav PP. Physical action of nonthermal cold plasma technology for starch modification. Food Physics. 2024;1:100011.
35. Subroto E, et al. Effect of heat-moisture treatment on functional and pasting properties of potato (Solanum tuberosum L. var. Granola) starch. Food Research. 2019;3(5):469-476.
36. Wu TY, Sun NN, Chau CF. Application of corona electrical discharge plasma on modifying the physicochemical properties of banana starch indigenous to Taiwan. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis. 2018;26(1):244-251.
37. Hoover R, Manuel H. Effect of heat-moisture treatment on the structure and physicochemical properties of legume starches. Food Research International. 1996;29(8):731-750.
38. Devi R, Sit N. Effect of single and dual steps annealing in combination with hydroxypropylation on physicochemical, functional and rheological properties of barley starch. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2019;129:1006-1014.
39. Adebowalea KO, et al. Effect of heat moisture treatment and annealing on physicochemical properties of red sorghum starch. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2005;4(9).
40. Lorenz K, Kulp K. Cereal and root starch modification by heat-moisture treatment. I. Physico-chemical properties. Starch-Stärke. 1982;34(2):50-54.
41. Thirumdas R, et al. Functional and rheological properties of cold plasma treated rice starch. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2017;157:1723-1731.