Evaluation of proximate and textural profiles of chicken meat rolls fortified with pearl millet and foxtail millet flours

Introduction

In the global market, there is a surging demand for wholesome, minimally processed meat products as consumers become increasingly proactive about food safety and long-term health. Given the rise in chronic conditions like cardiovascular disease, obesity, and certain cancers, the development of "functional" meat products-those that offer health benefits beyond basic nutrition-has become a priority for the food industry (Hong et al., 2021) [12] . Furthermore, because millets are naturally gluten-free, they serve as an ideal functional ingredient for individuals managing celiac disease (Jukanti et al., 2016) [14] . Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), or bajra, is a droughtresilient staple providing 361 kcal/100 g and a robust nutritional profile of 13.6% protein, 7.8% fat, and up to 13.3% dietary fibre (Abdelrahman et al., 2005; Ali et al., 2003) [1,2] . It is rich in essential minerals like phosphorus and iron, and its high tryptophan and threonine levels enhance its value as a cost-effective protein extender in meat products (Kulthe et al., 2016; Yaro, 2020) [16,35] . Furthermore, its phenolic content (1.2 μmol FAE/g) contributes vital antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties (Sindhu et al., 2019) [28] . Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) is a fast-growing annual crop adaptable to diverse climates, offering 351 kcal/100 g and a superior fibre content of 14% (FAO, 2011; Sharma & Niranjan, 2017) [8,27] . It is a significant source of carotene and magnesium, which supports cardiovascular health and migraine management (Xue et al., 2008) [34] . With a phenolic concentration of (1.28 μmol FAE/g) and high lecithin levels, foxtail millet provides strong antioxidant activity and nervous system support, making it an ideal functional ingredient (Sindhu et al., 2019; Xue et al., 2008) [28, 34] . By blending the high-quality protein of poultry with the fibre and antioxidant-rich profile of pearl and foxtail millets, manufacturers can create a "superfood" meat product. This hybrid approach addresses the modern consumer's need for a balanced diet that supports metabolic health while maintaining the sensory appeal of traditional meat (Kulthe et al., 2016; Sharma & Niranjan, 2017) [16,27] . The primary objective of this research was to fortify meat products with dietary fibre and enrich them with various health-promoting properties through the incorporation of pearl and foxtail millets.

Experimental details

The present study was conducted in the Department of Livestock Products Technology, College of Veterinary Sciences, LUVAS, Hisar.

Materials

Healthy broiler chickens, aged approximately 5 to 6 weeks and raised under uniform nutritional and management protocols, were sourced from the Livestock Farm at the College of Veterinary Sciences, LUVAS, Hisar, or the local Hisar market. The birds underwent slaughter and dressing following standardized procedures. After a thorough carcass wash, the meat was manually deboned, ensuring the removal of all visible adipose and connective tissues. The resulting deboned poultry was sealed in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) bags and maintained in a deep freezer until required for analysis. Standardized proportions of sodium chloride, sodium tripolyphosphate (STTP), laboratory-developed spice blends, vegetable oils, water, whole egg liquid, and semolina were utilized alongside a condiments mix. To prepare the millet components, pearl and foxtail millet grains were sourced from the local Hisar market, rinsed thoroughly with clean water, and strained through muslin cloth to remove excess moisture. Following this, the grains were dehydrated in a hot air drier and ground into a fine powder before being stored in airtight containers.

All supplementary chemicals, analytical standards, and culture media required for the study were obtained from reputable suppliers, including Qualigens, CDH, Hi-Media, and Sigma-Aldrich.

Preparation of control chicken rolls

To prepare the control meat rolls, 77 g of minced poultry was blended with a precise mixture of sodium chloride (1.75 g), sodium tripolyphosphate (0.3 g), and a 1:1 ratio of ginger-garlic condiments (3.25 g). The formulation was further supplemented with a laboratory-developed spice mix (1.75 g), semolina flour (3 g), and refined vegetable oil (7 g), using ice flakes (2.7 g) to maintain temperature during the process. These ingredients were homogenized for 4 to 5 minutes to ensure the formation of a stable emulsion. This mixture was then transferred to beakers, sealed with aluminum foil, and subjected to low-heat steam cooking for 35 minutes. Once the internal temperature stabilized, the rolls were cooled to ambient temperature, packaged in polyethylene bags, and maintained under refrigeration at 4±1 °C for subsequent analysis. Levels of pearl millet flour (PMF) and foxtail millet flour (FTMF) were selected on the basis of sensory evaluation.

Proximate composition

Proximate composition was determined by following the standard methods of AOAC (2005) [3] .

Shear press value (Firmness and toughness)

Force needed to shear 1 cm 3 piece of chicken meat rolls was recorded by using Warner Bratzler Shear Press (Salter Model No. 235 6S). Values were expressed in kg/cm 3 .

Texture profile analysis (TPA)

The texture of both control and treated rolls was assessed using the Texture Analyser (TAHD plus) from Stable Micro Systems Ltd., based in Surrey, England, utilizing the Texture Exponent Prog. A compression platform with a diameter of 70 mm was employed as a probe, following the method outlined by Bourne (1978) for Texture Profile Analysis (TPA). Samples measuring 20 mm in diameter and 15 mm in height were compressed to 50% of their original height, with a 5-second interval between the two compression cycles. Force-time deformation curves were generated using a 50 kg load cell at a cross-head speed of 2 mm/sec. Various textural attributes such as hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness were evaluated.

Instrumental colour analysis

Colour of chicken rolls was measured using a Konica Minolta chroma meter CR-400 (Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc., Japan) with 8 mm aperture for measurement. The instrument was calibrated with a white standard plate. Colour scores were expressed as CIE Lab L* (lightness), a* (redness) and b* (yellowness).

Statistical analysis

Data obtained from above test were subjected to statistical analysis using Tukey test by using SPSS-16.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, II USA) software to find out the significant difference at 5% significance level in the mean values.

Result and Discussion

Proximate composition

Incorporation of PMF and FTMF to chicken meat rolls resulted in significant increase in moisture content of chicken rolls compared to control. Similar finding observed by Reddy et al. (2017b) [23] were reported an increase in moisture content in sausages with higher levels of foxtail millet flour, particularly at 9% incorporation, compared to the control. Addition of PMF and FTMF resulted in a significant increase in crude fibre content compared to control. Increase in crude fibre content in treated rolls was due to higher dietary fibre content in PMF and FTMF. Pushparaj and Urooj (2011) [21] found that the pearl millet had dietary fibre content approximately 11.9%-13.3%. Sharma and Niranjan (2017) [27] also noticed that the total dietary fibre content of foxtail millet is 14 g/100 g. Similar finding observed by Reddy et al. (2017b) [23] who reported increased crude fibre content with higher levels of foxtail millet flour in sausages. Crude protein content of control was found significantly higher than treated rolls. Similar findings were also reported by Reddy et al. (2017b) [23] who observed a significant decrease in protein content in both raw and cooked chevon sausages with foxtail millet flour. Shinde et al. (2019) [28] also reported lower protein content in Japanese quail meat nuggets treated with finger millet flour at a 6% level compared to the control. No significant difference was noticed in fat content of control and treated chicken rolls. Pushparaj and Urooj (2011) [21] found that the pearl millet had dietary crude fat content approximately 7.8% crude fat. Sharma and Niranjan (2017) [27] also noticed that the crude fat content of foxtail millet is (4.3 g/100 g). Similar finding was observed by Dahriya et al. (2024) [7] who reported that the fat level increased slightly with the addition of kodo millet flour in chicken meat nuggets. Ash content was significantly higher in treated rolls in comparison to control. Similar finding was reported by Gamit et al. (2020) [9] who observed increased ash content in chicken meat cutlets with finger millet flour at various incorporation levels. Control-Chicken rolls with 3% semolina, T1-Chicken rolls with 9% pearl millet flour, T2-Chicken rolls with 6% foxtail millet flour, T3-Chicken rolls with 5% pearl millet flour + 3% foxtail millet flour

Firmness, toughness and texture profile analysis

The firmness and toughness values were found significantly higher in all treated rolls comparison to control. Similar results were observed by Santhi et al. (2019) [25] , who observed an enhancement in textural attributes of treated rolls such as firmness, toughness and hardness compared to control sample. small letter superscripts in a column differ significantly (p≤0.05) Control-Chicken rolls with 3% semolina, T1-Chicken rolls with 9% pearl millet flour, T2-Chicken rolls with 6% foxtail millet flour, T3-Chicken rolls with 5% pearl millet flour + 3% foxtail millet flour Texture profile analysis of control and treated rolls revealed a significant increase in hardness in all treated rolls. Higher hardness values in these treatments might be due to their high fibre content. No any significant difference was noticed in springiness and cohesiveness value of control and treated rolls. Gumminess and chewiness are secondary parameters. Values of gumminess depend on the values of hardness and cohesiveness. Chewiness depends on gumminess and springiness. Addition of PMF and FTMF resulted in a significant increase in gumminess value compared to control. Addition of PMF (T 1 ) resulted in a significant increase in chewiness value compared to control. In a similar type of study on low fat chicken meat ball Santhi et al. (2019) [25] , observed an enhancement in textural attributes such as hardness, gumminess and chewiness compared to the control samples by addition of pearl millet up to 10% in low fat chicken meat balls.

Instrumental colour analysis

Colour is considered as a crucial factor in indicating the quality and freshness of meat and is often considered the primary determinant of its shelf life (Smith et al., 2000) [29] . As such, it plays a significant role in influencing consumer preferences. The lightness (L*) values of treated chicken rolls was found significantly lower in comparison to control. Results indicate that incorporation of PMF and FTMF contributed to increase in darkness of chicken rolls. Similar finding was observed by Naveena et al. (2006) [18] who concluded that the addition of Ragi flour (RF) resulted in a significant reduction in the Lightness (L*) values of the patties compared to the control group. Incorporation of PMF and FTMF individually as well as their combination resulted in enhancement of redness compared to control. Control-Chicken rolls with 3% semolina, T1-Chicken rolls with 9% pearl millet flour, T2-Chicken rolls with 6% foxtail millet flour, T3-Chicken rolls with 5% pearl millet + 3% foxtail millet flour No significant difference was noticed in yellowness of control and treated chicken rolls. This trend may be due to darker colour of millets and their polyphenol component which found in PMF and FTMF treated rolls. Gorachiya et al. (2022) [10] also reported a significant decrease in lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) values with increasing levels of ragi flour, while the redness (a*) values significantly increased (p<0.05) when ragi flour was added to chicken sausage.

Conclusion

The investigation demonstrated that the incorporation of 9% pearl millet flour (PMF) and 6% foxtail millet flour (FTMF) individually and their combination 5% PMF and 3% FTMF significantly enhanced the dietary fibre, moisture, and mineral content of chicken meat rolls compared to semolinabased controls. Although millet fortification increased firmness, toughness, instrumental hardness, gumminess, and chewiness while, critical quality parameters such as fat content, springiness, and cohesiveness remained statistically comparable across all treatments. Furthermore, the inclusion of PMF and FTMF resulted in a darker, more intensely red product, confirming the efficacy of these grains as functional ingredients for the development of nutrientdense, fibre-enriched poultry products.

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