Perceived barriers to organic farming adoption among farmers: Empirical evidence from Rajasthan

Introduction

Modern agriculture has mastered the art of production while quietly dismantling the foundations that make production possible. Soil degradation now affects over 33 per cent of the world's agricultural land, groundwater contamination from agrochemicals is accelerating and the economic burden of input dependency is pushing smallholder farmers deeper into debt (FAO, 2022; Tilman et al., 2011) [7,24] . The Green Revolution, which transformed food-deficit nations like India into surplus economies, simultaneously embedded a cycle of chemical dependency that now threatens the longterm viability of farming itself (Pingali, 2012) [18] . Despite remarkable improvements in productivity, the resulting ecological and economic consequences have become a growing concern. Organic farming has emerged as the most scientifically validated response to this crisis. Defined as a holistic production system that sustains agro-ecosystem health through biodiversity conservation, biological cycles and elimination of synthetic inputs (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2007) [3] , it offers measurable advantages over conventional agriculture in soil carbon sequestration, water retention, energy efficiency and biodiversity preservation (Mondelaers et al., 2009; Seufert & Ramankutty, 2017) [12,6] . Beyond ecology, organic produce commands premium market prices, offering resource-constrained smallholders a credible pathway to improved income (Willer et al., 2023) [25] . The potential of organic farming to deliver both environmental sustainability and economic benefits has been widely recognized. Yet global organic farmland covers merely 1.6 percent of total agricultural area (Willer et al., 2023) [25] . In India, despite explicit policy commitment through the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), organic adoption among smallholder farmerswho constitute over 86 percent of all agricultural holdingsremains strikingly marginal (MoAFW, 2021; Singh & Bhatt, www.extensionjournal.com 2021) [21] . Policy infrastructure exists. Scientific evidence is robust. Yet farmers are not transitioning. This disconnect is the central problem this study addresses. In the context of organic farming, perceived barriers operate across four interlocking dimensions. Economically, high conversion costs and yield uncertainty deter resourceconstrained smallholders (Läpple & Van Rensburg, 2011; Alotaibi et al., 2021) [10,1] . Informationally, knowledge deficits in organic techniques and certification procedures reveal systemic failures in agricultural extension (Panneerselvam et al., 2012) [17] . Institutionally, weak market linkages and complex certification bureaucracies create structural bottlenecks individual farmers cannot overcome alone (Rao et al., 2019) [20] . At the psychosocial level, risk aversion and habitual dependence on conventional inputs constitute cognitive barriers that policy instruments alone cannot dismantle (Wauters et al., 2010; Borges et al., 2021) [, 2] . While existing literature has broadly documented these categories of barriers, rigorous perception-based empirical evidence from smallholder-dominated agrarian contexts in India, characterized by fragmented landholdings, limited institutional support, and underdeveloped organic value chains, remains limited (Pandey et al., 2012; Prokopy et al., 2019) [15,19] . The present study directly addresses this gap. Grounded in the Diffusion of Innovations and Theory of Planned Behavior frameworks, it systematically analyzes barriers perceived by farmers towards adoption of organic farming across economic, informational, institutional, and psychosocial dimensions. The central research question guiding this inquiry is: What barriers do farmers perceive as most significant in constraining their transition to organic farming, and how do these barriers vary across socio-economic profiles? The findings are intended to equip extension agencies and policymakers with precise, contextspecific evidence for designing interventions that can meaningfully accelerate India's transition to sustainable agriculture.

Materials and Methods

In Rajasthan state the RSOCA has certified organic grower groups and organic farmers in 19 districts of Rajasthan. Out of these, 2 districts namely Jaipur and Ajmer were selected purposively, due to having lowest number of organic farmers as compared to other districts of Rajasthan. As per the Annual Report of Rajasthan State Organic Certification Agency, Jaipur, 2023, in Jaipur and Ajmer districts of Rajasthan, there were only 77 and 49 organic farmers certified by the RSOCA. Out of these, 85 per cent organic farmers were chosen for the study based on the advisory committee's recommendations, keeping in view the limited time and funds available due to being student project. In this way 65 organic farmers from Jaipur and 42 organic farmers from Ajmer district were selected. In this way a total of 107 organic farmers were selected for the study purpose. To measure the constraints faced by the organic farmers in the adoption of organic farming practices, based on experts' opinion and literature reviewed, a suitable schedule was developed by the investigator by way of enlisting all the possible problems which may come in the way of adoption of organic farming practices by the organic farmers. This instrument had eight major dimensions namely technical, labour, credit and economic, service and supply, environmental, cropping and marketing constraints. To measure the intensity of constraints intervening in the adoption of organic farming practices, three point continuum scale was used. These three points were most severe, severe and least severe with scores as, 3, 2 and 1, respectively. The recorded responses were counted and converted into mean per cent scores (MPS) for each constraint and Spearman's rank-order correlation was used to examine the association between districts. IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 25.0) was used for data analysis, enabling effective data processing, statistical computing, and interpretation.

Results and Discussion

Constraints perceived by framers towards organic farming practices

To get an overview of constraint perceived by the organic farmers, the respondents were divided into three categories viz., low level constraint perception, medium level constraint perception and high-level constraint perception. These categories were formulated on the basis of arbitrary method. (2019) [8] and Murugan et al. (2024) [13] .

Technical constraints perceived by organic farmers in adoption of organic farming practices

The analysis of data given in Table 2 reveal that among technical constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur (76.41 MPS) and Ajmer districts (82.54 MPS) was "Lack of standard package of practices for utilizing organic inputs". Similarly, the second most severely perceived constraint by organic farmers of both Jaipur (75.90 MPS) and Ajmer districts (77.78 MPS) was "Lack of knowledge about organic farming systems". The least severe constraint perceived by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Lack of technical assistance and guidance" (43.59 MPS), while, the organic farmers of Ajmer district least perceived the constraint of "Lack of skill for preparing organic manures" (55.56 MPS).

The organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived more technical constraints (68.68 MPS) as compared to Jaipur district (65.52 MPS) in adoption of organic farming practices.

It may be concluded from the findings that among technical constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur and Ajmer districts was "Lack of standard package of practices for utilizing organic inputs." These results might be due to the absence of a universally accepted and systematically organized set of guidelines or methods for using organic materials in agriculture. The calculated value of rank order correlation (r s ) was 0.80, which indicates significant association between the technical constraints faced by organic farmers of the Jaipur and Ajmer districts in adoption of organic farming practices. This leads to conclusion that there is an association between the ranks assigned by Jaipur and Ajmer district organic farmers in different technical constraints in spite of difference in magnitude of Mean per cent Score.These findings are in the line of findings of Haneef et al. (2019) [8] and Murugan et al. (2024) [13] .

Labour constraints perceived by organic farmers in adoption of organic farming practices

The analysis of data given in Table 3 reveal that among labour constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Higher labour cost due to higher labour requirement" (62.56 MPS), whereas, most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Ajmer district was "Time bound requirement of labour during application of inputs" (75.40 MPS). The second most severely constraint perceived by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Time bound requirement of www.extensionjournal.com labour during application of inputs" (60.51 MPS), while, the second most severely constraint perceived by organic farmers of Ajmer district was "Higher labour cost due to higher labour requirement" (69.06.00 MPS). The least severe constraint perceived by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Bullock/tractor/power tiller charges are high" (42.05 MPS), while, organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived least severe constraint of "Non availability of skilled labour for input preparation" (43.65 MPS). The organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived more labour constraints (58.83 MPS) as compared to Jaipur district (54.10 MPS) related to "Labour constraints" in adoption of organic farming practices. It may be concluded from the findings that among labor constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Higher labour cost due to higher labour requirement," whereas the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Ajmer district was "Time bound requirement of labour during application of inputs." These results might be due to the fact that in organic farming, the overall expense of labor has increased because more workers are needed and there is a specific and often tight timeframe within which labor must be employed to apply inputs. The calculated value of rank order correlation (r s ) was 0.89, which indicates significant correlation between the labour constraints faced by organic farmers of the Jaipur and Ajmer districts in adoption of organic farming practices.This leads to conclusion that there is an association between the ranks assigned by Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers in different labour constraints in spite of difference in magnitude of Mean per cent Score.These findings are in the line of findings of Haneef et al. (2019) [8] and Dadheech & Kaur; (2025) [4] .

Credit and economic constraints perceived by organic farmers in adoption of organic farming practices

The analysis of data given in Table 4 reveal that among credit and economic constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur (81.54 MPS) and Ajmer districts (93.65 MPS) was "Initial low yield in organic farming". The second most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Initial low price for the organic produce" (78.97 MPS), while, second most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Ajmer district was "Lack of government support in organic farming" (86.51 MPS). The least severe constraint perceived by organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Low yield of crops in organic farming" (62.05 MPS), while, organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived least severe constraint was "Less availability of organic inputs at lower price for organic farming" (61.90 MPS). The organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived more "Credit and economic constraints" (78.37 MPS) as compared to Jaipur district (74.62 MPS) in adoption of organic farming practices. It may be concluded from the findings that among credit and economic constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur and Ajmer districts was "Initial low yield in organic farming." These findings might be due to the reason that at the beginning of organic farming, crop production is lower than expected or compared to conventional farming methods. The calculated value of rank order correlation (r s ) was 0.91, which indicates significant correlation between the credit and economic constraints faced by organic farmers of the Jaipur and Ajmer districts in adoption of organic farming practices.This leads to conclusion that there is an association between the ranks assigned by Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers in different credit and economic constraints in spite of difference in magnitude of Mean per cent Score.These findings are in the line of findings of Haneef et al. (2019) [8] and Dadheech & Kaur; (2025) [4] .

Service and supply constraints perceived by organic farmers in adoption of organic farming practices

The analysis of data given in Table 4.3.4 reveal that among service and supply constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur (73.33 MPS) and Ajmer districts (84.13 MPS) was "Lack of supportive institutions for organic farming". The second most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Adulteration of organic inputs" (67.69 MPS), while, organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived second most severely constraint was "Transporting challenges of organic inputs for organic farming" (80.95 MPS). The least severe perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur (47.18 MPS) and Ajmer (42.86 MPS) districts was "Non availability of organic inputs in commercial scale for organic farming". The organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived more "Service and supply constraints" (66.40 MPS) as compared to Jaipur district (59.49 MPS) in adoption of organic farming practices. It may be concluded from the findings that among service and supply constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur and Ajmer districts was "Lack of supportive institutions for organic farming". These findings might be due to the reason that in organic farming, there are not enough organizations, agencies or infrastructure in place to provide the necessary support, resources, training, research and advocacy for organic farming. This absence can make it challenging for farmers to adopt and sustain organic practices. The calculated value of rank order correlation (r s ) was 0.87, which indicates significant correlation between the service and supply constraints faced by organic farmers of the Jaipur and Ajmer districts in adoption of organic farming practices.This leads to conclusion that there is an association between the ranks assigned by Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers in different service and supply constraints in spite of difference in magnitude of Mean per cent Score.These findings are in the line of findings of Haneef et al. (2019) [8] and Naik, et al. (2025) [14] .

Environmental constraints perceived by organic farmers in adoption of organic farming practices

The analysis of data given in Table 6 reveal that among environmental constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur (68.71 MPS) and Ajmer (81.74 MPS) districts was "Erratic onset of monsoon rain". The second most severely perceived constraint by organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Organic farming requires clean/non-polluted water for irrigation" (63.07 MPS), while, organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived second most severely constraint was "Requirement of long period to get positive responses from the ecosystem" (66.66 MPS). The least severe constraints perceived by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Foul odour during preparation of organic inputs" (50.25 MPS), while, organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived least severe constraint of "Runoff and leaching of nutrients due to erosion" (50.79 MPS). The organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived more "Environmental constraints" (62.96 MPS) as compared to Jaipur district (58.89 MPS) in adoption of organic farming practices. It may be concluded from the findings that among environmental constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur and Ajmer districts was "Erratic onset of monsoon rain". These findings might be due to various natural and ecological challenges that can limit the effectiveness or efficiency of organic farming practices. www.extensionjournal.com The calculated value of rank order correlation (r s ) was 0.88, which indicates significant correlation between the environmental constraints faced by organic farmers of the Jaipur and Ajmer districts in adoption of organic farming practices.This leads to conclusion that there is an association between the ranks assigned by Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers in different environmental constraints in spite of difference in magnitude of Mean per cent Score.These findings are in the line of findings of Haneef et al. (2019) [8] and Naik, et al. (2025) [14] .

Cropping constraints perceived by organic farmers in adoption of organic farming practices

The analysis of data given in Table 7 reveal that among cropping constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Drought at critical stages of plant growth" (62.56 MPS), while, most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Ajmer district was "Lack of inputs specifically for weed management" (65.87 MPS). The second most severely perceived constraint by organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Lack of inputs specifically for weed management" (53.84 MPS), while, the second most severely perceived constraint by organic farmers of Ajmer district was "Drought at critical stages of plant growth" (61.11 MPS). The least severe constraint perceived by the organic farmers of both Jaipur (35.89 MPS) and Ajmer (42.85 MPS) districts was "Drifting of chemicals". The organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived more "Cropping constraints" (52.70 MPS) as compared to Jaipur district (48.51 MPS) in adoption of organic farming practices. It may be concluded from the findings that among cropping constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Drought at critical stages of plant growth," while the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Ajmer district was "Lack of inputs specifically for weed management." These findings might be due to the reason that in organic farming, periods of insufficient rainfall or water availability during essential phases of a plant's development such as germination, flowering and fruiting can significantly impact crop yield. The calculated value of rank order correlation (r s ) was 0.90, which indicates significant correlation between the cropping constraints faced by organic farmers of the Jaipur and Ajmer districts in adoption of organic farming practices.This leads to conclusion that there is an association between the ranks assigned by Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers in different cropping constraints in spite of difference in magnitude of Mean per cent Score.These findings are in the line of findings of Haneef (2019) [8] .

Marketing constraints perceived by organic farmers in adoption of organic farming practices

The analysis of data given in Table 8 reveals that among marketing constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Lack of reliable market information, regulation and distribution channels" (88.21 MPS), whereas, most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Ajmer district was "High transportation charges of organic inputs" (92.06 MPS). The second most severely perceived constraint by organic farmers of Jaipur district was "High transportation charges of organic inputs" (81.54 MPS), while, second most severely perceived constraint by organic farmers of Ajmer district was "Lack of reliable market information, regulation and distribution channels" (86.51 MPS). The least severe constraint perceived by the organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Low demand of organic products" (58.97 MPS), whereas, organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived least www.extensionjournal.com severe constraint was "Lack of storage facilities for organic inputs" (58.73 MPS). The organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived more "Marketing constraints" (70.74 MPS) as compared to Jaipur district (68.41 MPS) in adoption of organic farming practices.

The findings are so might be due to reason that in organic farming, there are significant gaps or deficiencies in the infrastructure and support systems necessary for organic farmers to effectively market their produce. The calculated value of rank order correlation (r s ) was 0.79, which indicates significant correlation between the marketing constraints faced by organic farmers of the Jaipur and Ajmer districts in adoption of organic farming practices.This leads to conclusion that there is an association between the ranks assigned by Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers in different marketing constraints in spite of difference in magnitude of Mean per cent Score.These findings are in the line of findings of Haneef et al. (2019) [8] and Harish, N. (2020) [9] .

Certification constraints perceived by organic farmers in adoption of organic farming practices

The analysis of data given in Table 9 reveal that among certification constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur (78.97 MPS) and Ajmer (76.19 MPS) districts was "Certification fee is high for organic certification". The second most severely perceived constraint by organic farmers of Jaipur district was "Certification process for organic products is difficult and time-consuming" (69.23 MPS), while, second most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived second most constraint was "Certification agencies are less and located at distant places" (75.40 MPS). The least severe constraint perceived by the organic farmers of both Jaipur (57.44 MPS) and Ajmer (61.11 MPS) districts was "No labeling / Standards for organic inputs". The organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived more "Certification constraints" (72.06 MPS) as compared to Jaipur district (65.33 MPS) in adoption of organic farming practices. It can be concluded from the findings that among certification constraints, the most severely perceived constraint by the organic farmers of both Jaipur and Ajmer districts was "Certification fee is high for organic certification." These findings might be due to the reason that in organic farming, the cost required to obtain official certification stating that a farm or product meets organic standards is expensive. High certification fees can be a barrier for small-scale farmers or producers. The calculated value of rank order correlation (r s ) was 0.90, which indicates positive correlation between the certification constraints faced by organic farmers of the Jaipur and Ajmer districts in adoption of organic farming practices.This leads to conclusion that, there is an association between the ranks assigned by Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers in different certification constraints in spite of difference in magnitude of Mean per cent Score.These findings are in the line of findings of Haneef et al. (2019) [8] and Harish, N. (2020) [9] .

Overall constraints faced by organic farmers in adoption of organic farming practices

A perusal of data in Table 10 reveals that the organic farmers of both Jaipur (74.62 MPS) and Ajmer (78.37 MPS) districts most severely perceived the "Credit and economic constraints". The organic farmers of Jaipur district perceived second most severe constraints to "Marketing constraints" (68.51 MPS), whereas, organic farmers of Ajmer district perceived second most severe constraints to "Certification constraints" (72.06 MPS). The organic farmers of both Jaipur (48.72 MPS) and Ajmer (52.70 MPS) districts had least severe perception about "Cropping constraints". The organic farmers of Ajmer district (66.33 MPS) most severely perceived the constraints as compared to Jaipur district (62.01 MPS) in adoption of organic farming practices. Hence it can be concluded that among the eight categories of constraints, credit and economic constraint were the most serve constraints faced by both Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers. It was followed by marketing constraints, certification constraints, technical constraints, service and supply constraints, environmental constraints, labour constraints. The Cropping constraints were perceived least severely by Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers. An effort was also made to find out the rank order correlation between overall constraints faced by Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers. The calculated value of rank order correlation (r s ) was 0.97, which indicate significant correlation. The calculated value of 't' (6.57) was higher than its table value at 5 per cent level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis: "There is no significant association between the overall constraints faced by organic farmers of the Jaipur and Ajmer districts in adoption of organic farming practices" was rejected and alternative hypothesis was accepted. This leads to conclusion that, there is an association between the ranks assigned by Jaipur and Ajmer districts organic farmers in different types constraints in spite of difference in magnitude of Mean per cent Score.These findings are in the line of findings of Haneef et al. (2019) [8] Naik, et al. (2025) [14] . www.extensionjournal.com

Conclusion

The present study provides empirical evidence that certified organic farmers in Rajasthan face substantial multidimensional barriers in the adoption of organic farming practices, with the majority (72.90%) operating under medium to high levels of constraint perception. Among the eight constraint categories examined, credit and economic barriers emerged as the most severely perceived impediments in both Jaipur and Ajmer districts, driven primarily by initial yield reduction during the transition period and inadequate government financial support, which is consistent with the broader literature affirming that economic uncertainty constitutes the most powerful deterrent to organic farming transition among resourceconstrained smallholders. The significant inter-district rank correlation (rs = 0.97, p < 0.01) reveals that despite differences in constraint intensity, the hierarchical structure of perceived barriers is remarkably consistent across both districts, suggesting that the constraints are systemic in nature rather than locally specific and point to structural deficiencies in the organic farming support ecosystem that transcend individual district boundaries.Establishing organic producer-consumer clubs at State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and their Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) can serve as an effective mechanism for strengthening market linkages. These clubs may operate through both physical and digital platforms, facilitating direct interaction between producers and consumers. Additionally, maintaining and regularly updating information on organic farmers and their produce on university and KVK websites can enhance market transparency, improve consumer awareness, and promote direct marketing opportunities. Such initiatives would help organic farmers obtain fair prices for their produce, reduce marketing inefficiencies, and encourage wider adoption of organic farming practices.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgementI am incredibly honored and truly delighted to convey my sincere gratitude to my major advisor, Dr. I.M. Khan, Head of Department and Professor in the Department of Extension Education at SKNAU, Jobner. From choosing my research topic to finishing my M.Sc. thesis, his priceless advice, steadfast support, perceptive criticism, and unceasing encouragement have been crucial to my research path. Throughout our inquiry, his commitment and motivation have been a continual source of inspiration.

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