Sustaining freshness innovative postharvest management for vegetables

Introduction

Vegetables occupy a prominent position in the global agricultural economy and play a vital role not only as a source of food but also in promoting economic development and human health. Postharvest losses of horticultural crops refer to the quantitative and qualitative deterioration that occurs from harvest until consumption. India is the second-largest producer of vegetables in the world after China, with an annual production of 204.61 million tonnes from an area of 11.35 million hectares. However, postharvest losses in vegetables are among the highest across all food commodities, ranging from 5 to 12% of total production (APEDA, 2023). A diverse and balanced diet rich in vegetables is essential for obtaining a wide range of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals that support overall health. The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR, 2024) recommends a daily intake of 400 g of vegetables per adult. Despite their importance, countries with agriculture-based economies face significant challenges related to postharvest losses due to the highly perishable nature of vegetables (Kirci et al., 2022) [25] . The short shelf life of vegetables contributes to nearly 70% of total food waste, primarily due to inadequate transportation and storage infrastructure. Vegetables may lose 20-30% of their value after harvest due to losses occurring at different stages, including harvesting (38%), processing and packaging (19%), distribution (19%), postharvest handling and storage (15%), and consumption (9%) (Sharma et al., 2024) [48] .

Postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables have serious implications for farmers' income and food security. These losses are mainly attributed to inadequate preservation techniques, inefficient transportation systems, and poor marketing infrastructure (De et al., 2024) [13] . Effective postharvest management involves a series of operations such as cooling, cleaning, sorting, grading, packaging, storage, and transportation (Chhetri et al., 2023) [10] . Reported that the highest postharvest losses occur in tomato, while the lowest are observed in radish. Therefore, improving postharvest practices and developing efficient technologies are essential for maintaining quality, extending shelf life, and ensuring food security (Workineh and Lemma, 2020) [63] . Maintaining freshness in vegetables is a critical aspect of postharvest management, as it helps preserve quality, nutritional value, and shelf life. Several key factors influence the freshness and quality of vegetables, which are discussed below.

Harvesting maturity

Harvesting refers to the process of collecting crops from the field at the appropriate stage of maturity. In vegetables, harvesting is generally carried out at the stage considered suitable for consumption. Fruits are typically harvested at physiological maturity, when they attain maximum dry weight, whereas vegetables are harvested at horticultural or field maturity (Pokhrel, 2021) [37] . Proper handling during harvesting is essential to minimize mechanical damage such as bruising, cuts, and punctures. Harvesting during cooler hours of the day and providing shade immediately after harvest are recommended practices to reduce field heat and prevent wilting (Ridolfi et al., 2018) [43] . Harvesting should also be avoided during rainy conditions, as excess moisture promotes microbial growth. Harvesting at the correct maturity stage is crucial for maintaining quality, shelf life, and marketability. For instance, tomatoes intended for long-distance transport are harvested at the breaker stage, whereas leafy vegetables such as lettuce are harvested when fully developed but before bolting. In bitter gourd, maturity is difficult to assess visually; however, external fruit color and seed coat color can serve as indicators. Aminah and Anna (2011) [65] reported that ripening in bitter gourd increases physicochemical properties and total phenolic content, while reducing antioxidant activity (DPPH scavenging activity). Typically, bitter gourd is harvested 12-20 days after flowering, depending on the variety, before full seed development (Dhillon et al., 2017) [66] . Baburao (2013) [3] suggested that bitter gourd (variety Preethi) can be harvested at 14-15 days after flower opening without economic loss. Tolasa et al. (2021) [59] demonstrated that harvesting stage and Pre-storage treatments significantly influence tomato shelf life. Tomatoes harvested at the light red stage and treated with water showed maximum decay, whereas those harvested at the mature green stage and treated with 50% cactus mucilage exhibited minimum decay and weight loss. The highest weight loss (62.47%) was recorded in mature green tomatoes treated with water after 20 days of storage, while the lowest weight loss (12.77%) was observed in light red tomatoes treated with cactus mucilage. The maturity stage at harvest significantly affects postharvest quality attributes such as taste, firmness, and shelf life (Beckles, 2012) [5] . Tomatoes, being climacteric fruits, can be harvested at different stages, including mature green, breaker, turning, pink (light red), and red. These stages influence parameters such as soluble solids, acidity, pH, color, firmness, nutrient content, and storage life (Teka, 2013) [66] . According to Ramady et al. (2015) [42] as shown in table 1, the maturity duration of some common vegetables is as follows: [20] Chili (color -lightness, chroma, hue) Tristimulus colorimetry D65 standard illuminant and two degree observer rt6standard Sajjan et al.,2020 [46] Cow pea ASEAN standards Extra class, class 1, class 2 ASEAN, 2013

Globally, grading plays a crucial role in addressing labor shortages and improving efficiency in the agricultural supply chain. Although manual grading is still widely practiced, it is often slow and inconsistent (Londhe et al., 2013) [27] . As shown in table 2.

image preprocessing methods such as gamma correction and Otsu thresholding in the LAB color space. Their approach achieved a classification accuracy of 96%, demonstrating the effectiveness of automated grading systems in quality assessment.

Precooling

Precooling is a vital postharvest practice aimed at rapidly removing field heat from freshly harvested produce. It slows down metabolic processes, reduces respiration and microbial activity, and extends shelf life. Temperature plays a crucial role in regulating physiological and biochemical processes in vegetables. High field temperatures increase respiration rates and microbial growth, leading to rapid deterioration. Precooling helps reduce field heat, bringing produce to optimal storage temperatures and thereby preserving quality and delaying senescence (Zhang et al., 2023) [64] . Different precooling methods are selected based on crop type, packaging, cooling rate, and storage conditions.

Benefits of precooling

 Reduces water loss  Inhibits growth of spoilage microorganisms  Slows respiration, transpiration, and ethylene production  Reduces enzymatic activity and promotes wound healing

Types of precooling methods

Forced-Air cooling

Forced-air cooling involves drawing cold air through packed produce, significantly enhancing cooling efficiency. It can reduce cooling time up to tenfold compared to room cooling.

Hydrocooling

Hydrocooling uses chilled water to remove heat rapidly. It is highly efficient due to the higher heat conductivity of water compared to air. However, sanitation is critical to prevent microbial contamination.

Vacuum cooling

Vacuum cooling reduces pressure, causing moisture to evaporate and absorb heat, thereby cooling the produce. It is highly effective for leafy vegetables but not suitable for waxy or dense produce. Hydro-vacuum systems help minimize moisture loss.

Ice cooling

Ice cooling maintains low temperatures during storage and transport. While effective, it may cause freezing injury, excess moisture, and increased transportation costs. According to Tao et al. (2024) [57] , various precooling methods including natural convection, slightly acidic electrolyzed water, fluid ice, cold water, vacuum cooling, and strong wind cooling significantly influence the cooling rate and visual quality of bok choy during storage. The higher weight loss observed in bok choy treated with natural convection pre-cooling may be attributed to the longer cooling duration, the vapor pressure gradient between the produce and the surrounding environment, and increased transpiration and respiration due to retained field heat. A gradual decline in water content during storage was observed, which can be attributed to moisture loss through respiration and the influence of ambient relative humidity.

During the initial stage of storage, the moisture content in all pre-cooled treatments was higher than that of the room temperature control, indicating that pre-cooling followed by low-temperature storage effectively reduces moisture loss. After 9 days of storage, samples treated with vacuum precooling and strong wind pre-cooling maintained relatively higher moisture levels, suggesting that these methods effectively suppress transpiration and respiration, thereby delaying moisture loss during storage. Vacuum Pre-Cooling (VPC) has proven to be highly effective for bok choy, likely due to its rapid decompression process, which disrupts microbial activity and exerts a partial sterilization effect. Bok choy subjected to VPC exhibited superior quality attributes, including better color retention, higher firmness, chlorophyll content, titratable acidity, vitamin C, total phenolics, soluble sugars, and enhanced enzymatic activities such as superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and catalase. Among the different pre-cooling methods, vacuum pre-cooling was found to be the most effective, as it maintained maximum firmness throughout the storage period, with the highest firmness recorded after 15 days.

Precooling of potatoes at high relative humidity (90-95%) is also recommended, as it helps reduce skin dehydration and improves overall moisture retention. studied the effects of pre-cooling potatoes for 48 hours at different temperatures (6 °C, 8 °C, and 10 °C) and relative humidity levels (87%, 91%, and 95%). Their findings indicated that pre-cooling significantly improved quality retention during subsequent cold storage.

Impact of precooling on shelf life and quality

Precooling plays a critical role in extending the shelf life and maintaining the quality of perishable vegetables. By rapidly lowering the temperature immediately after harvest, precooling methods such as hydrocooling, forced-air cooling, and vacuum cooling reduce respiration rates and microbial activity, thereby slowing down deterioration processes. This helps preserve important quality attributes such as firmness, color, and nutritional value. Effective pre-cooling not only extends shelf life but also ensures that vegetables reach consumers in optimal condition, thereby reducing postharvest losses and improving marketability.

Hydrocooling, forced-air cooling, and Vacuum Cooling (VC) have demonstrated positive effects on the cooling of cellular food systems (Alabi et al., 2021) [68] . Kochhar and Kumar (2015) [70] reported that hydrocooling reduced physiological weight loss and shriveling in broccoli during storage. Similarly, forced-air cooling significantly improved the color and firmness of broccoli after 15 days of storage. Vacuum cooling has also been found effective in preserving the quality of porous vegetables such as broccoli (Carlos et al., 2018) [71] and pak choi (Zhu et al., 2020) [72] .

Recent advances in cooling techniques Hydrocooling

Hydrocooling is highly effective for preserving vegetables, particularly under hot climatic conditions. It rapidly removes field heat, reduces respiration, and delays postharvest deterioration (Shen et al., 2012; Ribeiro et al., 2018) [73,74 ] . Additionally, it helps in cleaning produce by removing dirt and contaminants (Elansari, 2009) [75] . Studies have shown that hydrocooling delays wilting and reduces water loss in crops like lettuce and rockmelon (Zainal et al., 2019) [76] .

It is suitable for commodities with varying surface-to-volume ratios and has been shown to improve the color of cucumber and the quality of amaranth (Chepngeno et al., 2015; Elsisi et al., 2020) [77,78] . However, improper water temperature management may cause chilling injury, especially below 6 °C (Cantre et al., 2017) [79] . Furthermore, the use of contaminated water can introduce microbial hazards (Gleice et al., 2019) [80] .

Forced-Air Cooling

Forced-air cooling is a widely adopted technique in horticulture, significantly influencing cooling rate, product quality, and energy efficiency (Kochhar and Kumar, 2015) [70] . The cooling efficiency depends on factors such as product size, geometry, and cellular structure. Larger products tend to cool more slowly due to longer heat transfer pathways, whereas smaller products cool more rapidly (Alabi et al., 2020) [69] . Environmental factors such as air temperature, velocity, and relative humidity within the cooling chamber also play a critical role in determining cooling effectiveness (Han et al., 2017) [83] . Recent advancements using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) have improved the understanding of airflow distribution and temperature patterns, leading to enhanced cooling system design. Current research focuses on optimizing airflow patterns and packaging design to achieve uniform cooling while minimizing energy consumption (Jia et al., 2026) [84] .

Modified atmosphere vacuum cooling (MAVC)

Vacuum cooling is an efficient technique for rapidly reducing the temperature of porous vegetables by evaporative cooling under reduced pressure (Song et al., 2016) [85] . When combined with modified atmosphere conditions such as reduced oxygen (O₂) and increased carbon dioxide (CO₂) it further enhances cooling efficiency and suppresses microbial activity.

Modified Atmosphere Vacuum Cooling (MAVC) has shown promising results in preserving leafy vegetables by maintaining optimal gas composition. Typically, a gas mixture of 7% O₂, 7% CO₂, and 86% N₂ is used to enhance storage quality (Zhu et al., 2018) [72] . This method effectively preserves color, vitamin C content, and reduces respiration rates in vegetables such as flowering cabbage, Chinese cabbage, and green cabbage during storage at 4 °C for up to 21 days. However, MAVC is less effective for vegetables with thick skins or low surface area-to-volume ratios, such as tomatoes and okra. Despite its advantages, the high cost of implementation remains a limitation, and further research is required to optimize its commercial application. The higher weight loss observed in bok choy treated with natural convection pre-cooling may be attributed to the longer precooling duration, the vapor pressure gradient between the produce and the surrounding environment, and increased transpiration and respiration due to retained field heat. A decreasing trend in water content during storage was observed, which can be attributed to moisture loss resulting from respiration and the influence of environmental relative humidity. During the early stage of storage, the moisture content in all experimental groups was higher than that of the room temperature group, indicating that precooling followed by low-temperature storage effectively reduces moisture loss. After 9 days of storage, the moisture content of the samples treated with vacuum precooling and strong wind precooling remained relatively high, suggesting that these methods effectively inhibit transpiration and respiration, thereby delaying moisture loss during storage. Vacuum precooling (VPC) has been shown to be highly effective for bok choy, likely due to its rapid decompression process, which disrupts microbial structures and exerts a partial sterilization effect. Bok choy treated with VPC exhibited superior quality attributes, including better color retention, higher firmness, chlorophyll content, titratable acidity, vitamin C, total phenolics, soluble sugars, and enhanced enzymatic activities such as superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and catalase. Among the various precooling methods, vacuum precooling proved to be the most effective, maintaining the highest level of firmness throughout the storage period, with maximum firmness observed after 15 days.

Precooling of potatoes at high relative humidity (90-95%) is recommended, as it reduces skin dehydration and improves overall moisture retention. Reported that potatoes precooled for 48 hours at different temperatures (6 °C, 8 °C, and 10 °C) and relative humidity levels (87%, 91%, and 95%) exhibited better quality retention during subsequent storage. Their analysis confirmed that precooling significantly improved the storage quality of potatoes.

Impact of precooling on shelf life and quality

Precooling plays a crucial role in extending the shelf life and maintaining the quality of perishable vegetables. By rapidly reducing the temperature immediately after harvest, precooling methods such as hydrocooling, forced-air cooling, and vacuum cooling help minimize respiration rates and microbial growth, thereby slowing deterioration. This process preserves key quality attributes such as firmness, color, and nutritional content.

Effective precooling not only extends shelf life but also ensures that vegetables reach consumers in optimal condition, thereby reducing postharvest losses and improving marketability.

Hydrocooling, forced-air cooling, and Vacuum Cooling (VC) have shown positive effects on the cooling processes of cellular foods (Alabi et al., 2021) [68] . Kochhar and Kumar (2015) [70] reported that hydrocooling reduced physiological weight loss and shriveling in stored broccoli. Similarly, forced-air cooling significantly improved the color and firmness of broccoli after 15 days of storage. Vacuum cooling has also been found effective in preserving the quality of porous vegetables such as broccoli (Carlos et al., 2018) [71] and pak choi (Zhu et al., 2020) [72] .

Recent advances in cooling techniques Hydrocooling

Hydrocooling is highly effective for preserving vegetables, particularly under hot climatic conditions. It rapidly reduces temperature, maintains quality, and extends shelf life (Shen et al., 2012) [73] . This method uses chilled water or ice to remove field heat, slow respiration, and minimize postharvest deterioration (Ribeiro et al., 2018) [74] . Additionally, it helps cleanse produce by removing dirt and contaminants (Elansari, 2009) [75] .

Studies have shown that hydrocooling effectively delays wilting and reduces water loss in crops such as lettuce and rockmelon (Zainal et al., 2019) [76] . It is suitable for commodities with varying surface-to-volume ratios and has been shown to improve cucumber color and amaranth quality (Chepngeno et al., 2015; Elsisi et al., 2020) [77,78] . However, water temperature must be carefully controlled, as temperatures below 6 °C may cause chilling injury (Cantre et al., 2017) [79] . Furthermore, the use of contaminated water can introduce microbial hazards (Gleice et al., 2019) [80] .

Forced-Air Cooling

Forced-air cooling is a widely used technique for cooling horticultural produce, significantly influencing cooling rate, product quality, and energy efficiency (Gong et al., 2021) [82] .

Cooling performance depends on product size, geometry, and cellular structure. Larger products cool more slowly due to longer heat transfer distances, whereas smaller products cool more rapidly (Alabi et al., 2020) [69] . Air properties such as temperature, velocity, and relative humidity within the cooling chamber also affect cooling efficiency (Han et al., 2017) [83] . Advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) have enhanced understanding of airflow patterns and temperature distribution during cooling processes. Recent research focuses on optimizing airflow patterns and packaging design to achieve uniform cooling while reducing energy consumption (Jia et al., 2021) [84] .

Modified Atmosphere Vacuum Cooling (MAVC)

Vacuum cooling is an efficient technique for rapidly cooling porous food materials by evaporative cooling under reduced pressure (Song et al., 2016) [85] . When combined with modified atmosphere conditions such as increased carbon dioxide (CO₂) and reduced oxygen (O₂) it further enhances cooling efficiency and reduces microbial activity. Modified Atmosphere Vacuum Cooling (MAVC) has shown promising results for leafy vegetables by optimizing gas composition to enhance quality preservation (Zhu et al., 2018) [72] . Typically, a gas mixture of 7% O₂, 7% CO₂, and 86% N₂ is used. This method effectively preserves color, vitamin C content, and reduces respiration rates in vegetables such as flowering cabbage, Chinese cabbage, and green cabbage during storage at 4 °C for up to 21 days. However, MAVC is less suitable for vegetables with thick skins or low surface area-to-volume ratios, such as tomatoes and okra. Despite its effectiveness, the high cost of implementation remains a limitation, and further research is needed to optimize this technology.

Postharvest treatments

Postharvest treatments are essential for extending shelf life, maintaining quality, and reducing losses due to spoilage and decay. These treatments are applied immediately after harvest to slow physiological processes and protect produce from physical damage, pests, and diseases. Studied the effect of salicylic acid (SA) (5, 7.5, and 10 mM) and putrescine (PUT) (1, 2, and 3 mM) on immature bitter gourd fruits (16 days after pollination). Fruits were dipped for 15 minutes and stored at 10 °C with 85-95% relative humidity for 20 days. The lowest decay loss was observed in fruits treated with PUT (2 and 3 mM) and SA (7.5 and 10 mM). Among all treatments, 10 mM SA showed the best results, maintaining higher total phenols (26.28 [60] reported that 8 mmol/L putrescine treatment significantly delayed senescence in cowpea during cold storage by reducing weight loss and preserving ascorbic acid, chlorophyll, and phenolic content. It also enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities (POD, CAT, APX) and inhibited PPO activity. Fang et al. (2022) [15] demonstrated that a combined chitosan and tea polyphenol (CTS+TP) coating significantly improved the postharvest quality of broccoli. This treatment reduced decay, weight loss, and respiration rate, while preserving chlorophyll, vitamin C, antioxidant capacity, and sensory attributes. It also enhanced sulforaphane content and related gene expression. Suwannarak et al. (2015) [55] reported that a combination of 0.5% calcium chloride and chitosan coating effectively preserved the quality of carved vegetables such as pumpkin, cantaloupe, and carrot, while tap water treatment was more suitable for radish and cucumber.

Oz and Akyol (2020) [33] found that calcium chloride treatment, alone or combined with starch-glycerin coating, significantly improved the postharvest quality of radish stored under modified atmosphere packaging. It enhanced firmness, reduced physiological disorders, and maintained membrane integrity. Patil et al. (2024) [36] studied the combined effect of Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) and organic acid treatments on broccoli microgreens stored at 5 °C. Treatment with ascorbic acid and citric acid (0.25% each) under MAP conditions (15% CO₂, 5% O₂) significantly improved total phenolics (1247.68 mg GAE/100 g FW), flavonoids (56.9 mg QE/100 g FW), chlorophyll (42.12 mg/100 g FW), antioxidant activity, and overall quality, while reducing microbial load and weight loss. This approach extended shelf life up to 12 days.

Packaging

Packaging of vegetables plays a critical role in maintaining their quality, extending shelf life, and ensuring safe transportation from farm to consumer. Proper packaging protects vegetables from physical damage, contamination, and environmental factors such as humidity and temperature, thereby preserving freshness and improving marketability.

Functions of packaging materials

Packaging materials perform several important functions in postharvest management. They provide protection against physical damage, contamination, and environmental factors such as moisture, light, and oxygen. Packaging also helps in preservation by reducing spoilage through control of moisture loss and gas exchange. It ensures containment of produce into convenient units for handling and distribution, minimizing empty space. Additionally, packaging provides essential information such as nutritional details, usage instructions, and expiration dates. It enhances convenience through easy handling and user-friendly features, supports marketing through attractive design and labeling, ensures safety through tamper-evident features, and promotes sustainability by using recyclable and biodegradable materials.

Types of packaging materials

Packaging materials used for vegetables can be broadly classified into traditional and modern materials, each having specific advantages depending on the type of commodity and storage conditions.

Traditional packaging materials

Traditional packaging materials such as wooden boxes and sacks have long been used for transporting and storing vegetables. Wooden boxes are known for their strength and durability, providing effective protection against mechanical damage and environmental stress. Sacks made from materials like burlap or canvas are economical and breathable, making them suitable for commodities that require ventilation. Natural fiber sacks are biodegradable and environmentally friendly, whereas synthetic sacks pose environmental concerns due to their non-biodegradable nature.

Modern packaging materials

Modern packaging materials include corrugated fibreboard boxes, plastic bags, net bags, trays with overwrap, punnets, foam sleeves, and shrink wraps. Corrugated fibreboard boxes are widely used due to their lightweight nature, strength, and cushioning properties, and they are also recyclable. Plastic bags are flexible, moisture-resistant, and convenient, although they raise environmental concerns due to their nonbiodegradable nature. Shrink wrap provides a tight, protective, and tamper-evident seal around products, helping to reduce contamination and extend shelf life. Despite their advantages, the environmental impact of plastic-based materials has led to increasing interest in biodegradable alternatives.

Advanced Packaging Techniques

Advanced packaging techniques have significantly improved the postharvest handling of vegetables by enhancing shelf life and maintaining quality through better control of internal package conditions. [32,23] . Studies on cucumber and bitter gourd also demonstrated reduced weight loss and improved sensory quality under MAP conditions (Singh et [40,51,88,89] .

Modified

Classification of MAP

Modified Atmosphere Packaging can be classified into passive and active systems. In passive MAP, the internal atmosphere is modified naturally by the respiration of the produce after sealing the package. In contrast, active MAP involves flushing the package with a predetermined gas mixture before sealing, allowing precise control over the internal gaseous composition.

Recent Innovations in MAP

Recent innovations in MAP include the development of smart packaging systems equipped with sensors that monitor and regulate gas composition in real time. Advances in microperforation technology have enabled precise control of gas exchange, improving storage efficiency. Additionally, the development of biodegradable and eco-friendly packaging materials is gaining importance to reduce environmental impact and enhance sustainability.

Active packaging

Active packaging is an advanced technology in which packaging materials interact with the product to extend shelf life and maintain quality. This system may include gas scavengers, antimicrobial agents, and antioxidants that help control microbial growth and oxidative processes (Ozdemir and Floros, 2004) [34] . While sachet-based systems are effective, they may pose risks such as accidental ingestion and potential toxicity. Therefore, active films and coatings are increasingly preferred due to their improved safety, efficiency, and consumer acceptance.

Packaging requirements for fresh produce

Effective packaging of fresh vegetables must fulfill several essential requirements. It should provide protection against microbial contamination and deterioration, prevent bruising and mechanical injury, and minimize moisture and weight loss. Packaging should also allow adequate ventilation for respiration and gas exchange, regulate ethylene concentration, and slow down metabolic processes such as respiration and ripening (Siddiqui et al., 2021) [90] . By meeting these requirements, packaging plays a vital role in extending shelf life, maintaining quality, and improving the marketability of fresh produce.

Components of active packaging

Active packaging consists of several functional components that interact with the packaged produce to extend shelf life and maintain quality by controlling internal environmental conditions.

Oxygen control

Oxygen plays a significant role in the spoilage of fresh produce by promoting oxidative degradation and microbial growth. Active packaging systems utilize oxygen absorbers to reduce oxygen levels within the package, thereby slowing these deteriorative processes. For many oxygen-sensitive products such as lettuce and potatoes, oxygen levels below 1% are essential to prevent enzymatic browning and spoilage caused by polyphenol oxidation (Charles et al., 2003) [8] .

Oxygen absorbers are a key component of active Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP), incorporating both gasscavenging and gas-flushing techniques to create an optimal internal environment (Charles et al., 2003) [8] . These absorbers effectively reduce oxygen partial pressure and remove any oxygen entering from outside the package.

Various oxygen scavenging agents are used, including enzymes like glucose oxidase, reactive metals such as iron and zinc, and ascorbic acid-based compounds (vitamin C). Among these, iron-based absorbers are widely used in sachet form due to their high efficiency. Iron carbonate reacts with oxygen and moisture through oxidation, effectively removing oxygen from the package headspace. Studies have demonstrated their effectiveness; for example, Charles et al.

(2003) [8] reported extended shelf life of tomatoes using ironbased absorbers. Similarly, Eshpari, 2011 [91] found that oxygen absorbers combined with high-barrier polypropylene and nylon laminate films preserved β-carotene in dried sweet potato chips for more than 210 days.

Ethylene control

Ethylene is a natural plant hormone that regulates ripening, senescence, color development, and volatile production in fruits and vegetables (Ozdemir and Floros, 2004) [34] .

Although essential for physiological processes, excess ethylene accelerates ripening and deterioration, particularly in climacteric fruits, thereby reducing shelf life. Vegetables are generally less sensitive to ethylene compared to fruits but its accumulation still negatively affects quality during storage.

To mitigate these effects, active packaging incorporates ethylene scavengers that remove or reduce ethylene concentration within the package. These scavengers are available in various forms such as sachets, films, paper, and cardboard materials. Common substances used include potassium permanganate, activated carbon, and mineral substrates. Potassium permanganate oxidizes ethylene into acetaldehyde and ethanol, while carbon-based materials absorb and degrade ethylene (Coles et al., 2003) [11] . The effectiveness of ethylene scavengers has been demonstrated in several studies. Esturk et al. (2014) [92] reported that broccoli stored in LDPE films containing zeolite-based ethylene scavengers maintained better quality, including higher total soluble solids, phenolic content, chlorophyll, and reduced weight loss during 20 days of storage at 4 °C. In contrast, broccoli stored without scavengers experienced rapid quality deterioration due to anaerobic conditions, with oxygen levels dropping below 1% and ethylene concentration rising to 61.8 ppm.

Moisture control

Moisture control is essential in maintaining the quality of fresh fruits and vegetables, as both excess and insufficient moisture can lead to spoilage. Fresh produce generally requires a relative humidity of 85-95% to prevent dehydration and microbial growth. Active packaging systems regulate moisture levels using humidity absorbers or desiccants that either absorb excess moisture or release it when needed. Common moisture absorbers include sorbitol, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and bentonite (Rux et al., 2016) [45] . Fast-acting absorbers such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and sorbitol quickly remove excess moisture, while bentonite provides slower, sustained absorption. Deliquescent salts like sodium chloride can absorb moisture at high humidity levels and release it when humidity decreases, thereby acting as effective humidity buffers (Rux et al., 2016) [45] . Several studies highlight the benefits of moisture control systems. Shirazi and Cameron (1992) [49] reported that tomatoes stored in LDPE films with sodium chloride absorbers showed a shelf life extension of 10-12 days. Similarly, found that a combination of calcium chloride, sorbitol, and bentonite improved the sensory quality and appearance of mushrooms during storage at 10 °C. However, the selection of moisture absorbers depends on factors such as commodity type, packaging material permeability, storage Conditions, and initial humidity levels (Coles et al., 2003) [11] .

Freshness indicators and RFID tags

Freshness indicators are used to monitor chemical and microbial changes within packaged food by detecting metabolites such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, ethanol, and organic acids. These indicators often require direct contact with food and must comply with food safety regulations. Products like Food Fresh™ use color-changing polyethylene terephthalate (PET) materials to indicate product freshness over time (Mohebi and Marquez, 2015) [30] . RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags are advanced tools used for monitoring and tracking packaged products. These devices operate using electromagnetic fields and can transmit data through a reader. RFID tags are classified into passive, semi-passive, and active types, depending on their power source and functionality. They enhance traceability, inventory management, and quality monitoring in the supply chain.

Antimicrobial packaging

Antimicrobial packaging incorporates agents that inhibit the growth of spoilage-causing microorganisms, thereby extending shelf life and improving food safety. These agents can be classified as volatile or non-volatile. Non-volatile agents, such as organic acids, enzymes, and polysaccharides, require direct contact with the food surface, while volatile agents like ethanol and essential oils act through the package atmosphere (Siddiqui et al., 2018) [50] . Various studies demonstrate the effectiveness of antimicrobial packaging. Seo et al. (2012) [47] reported significant reduction of E. coli in spinach using allyl isothiocyanate sachets. Murriel et al. found oregano essential oil incorporated in films effective against major foodborne pathogens. showed that silver nanoparticle pads reduced microbial load and improved quality in fresh-cut melon. However, the use of natural antimicrobial agents such as essential oils must be carefully managed due to their strong sensory effects (Burt, 2004; Antunes and Cavaco, 2010) [95,96] .

Intelligent packaging

Intelligent packaging systems are designed to monitor the condition and quality of food without directly altering the internal environment (Yam, 2012) [97] . These systems provide real-time information about product status by detecting changes in internal and external conditions. Common components include indicators, sensors, and data carriers such as RFID tags (Ghaani et al., 2016) [18] . Freshness indicators are widely used in fruits and vegetables to detect pH changes associated with spoilage.

Edible packaging

Edible packaging provides a sustainable alternative to conventional packaging by forming a protective, consumable barrier around food products. These coatings are made from biopolymers and help control moisture loss, gas exchange, and microbial contamination, thereby extending shelf life and maintaining quality. Edible coatings have been widely studied for their effectiveness. Sree et al. (2020) [52] reported that 2.5% chitosan coating significantly extended the shelf life of tomatoes up to 30 days while delaying ripening. Similarly, Das et al. (2022) [12] demonstrated that a bionanocomposite Controlled Atmosphere (CA) and Modified Atmosphere (MA) storage are widely used techniques to enhance storage life. Controlled atmosphere storage involves continuous regulation of gas composition, whereas modified atmosphere storage involves initial modification followed by gradual changes due to respiration and packaging permeability (Jayas and Jeyamkondan, 2002) [99] . Lowering oxygen levels and increasing carbon dioxide concentrations reduces respiration and metabolic activity, thereby slowing senescence and extending shelf life.

Temperature control

Temperature control is a crucial factor in postharvest storage, as it directly influences the shelf life, quality, and physiological processes of vegetables. Different vegetables exhibit varying levels of chilling sensitivity, and while low temperatures help in reducing respiration and delaying spoilage, excessively low temperatures may cause chilling injury in sensitive crops. For instance, leafy vegetables such as spinach are highly susceptible to chilling injury and show symptoms within a short exposure period, whereas crops like tomato can tolerate low temperatures for a longer duration before exhibiting such injuries. The study conducted by Iwuagwu and Ezeufoh (2024) [21] evaluated the effect of different storage methods on the quality of okra fruits in Nigeria. The experiment involved storing freshly harvested okra in woven baskets lined with bitter leaves, unlined baskets, perforated paper cartons lined with bitter leaves, and unlined cartons. The results indicated that packaging materials significantly affected the physical quality and moisture content of okra, with unlined cartons showing a higher number of healthy fruits and better moisture retention compared to other storage methods. Similarly, Pholsin et al. investigated the impact of transport distance, storage temperature, and duration on tomato weight loss. Their findings revealed that weight loss increased with longer transport distances and higher storage temperatures. Tomatoes stored at 22 °C for 12 days showed the highest weight loss, reaching up to 6.91% for long-distance transport, whereas storage at 10 °C significantly reduced weight loss across all distances, ranging from 3.09% to 3.5%. The study concluded that low-temperature storage effectively minimizes transpiration and respiration rates, thereby reducing dehydration and maintaining product quality. Weight loss in vegetables during storage is primarily caused by transpiration and respiration processes. Higher temperatures increase vapor pressure deficits, leading to accelerated moisture loss and shriveling, which ultimately reduces market acceptability. Conversely, low-temperature storage minimizes these processes and helps in maintaining water balance within the produce. Jany et al. (2008) [22] studied the effect of different storage temperatures on vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower, country bean, tomato, and pea. The vegetables were stored at room temperature (for 8 days), refrigerated conditions at 4 °C (for 12 days), and freezing conditions at -18 °C (for 90 days). The results indicated that color, flavor, and texture were best preserved under freezing conditions. Additionally, vitamin C content varied across storage conditions, with freezing retaining higher levels compared to room and refrigerated storage. However, weight loss increased progressively over time in all storage conditions. Wei et al. (2019) [61] reported that fresh-cut broccoli treated with 100 µM melatonin and stored at 4 °C with 95% relative humidity for 25 days showed enhanced antioxidant activity. The treatment effectively regulated antioxidant compounds such as ascorbic acid, total phenols, and flavonoids, thereby improving the storage quality of broccoli.

Future prospects

The future of postharvest management lies in the adoption of smart, sustainable, and technology-driven solutions. Innovations such as nanotechnology-based edible coatings, advanced MAP systems, plasma technology, High-Pressure Processing (HPP), and Pulse Electric Fields (PEF) are expected to play a major role in enhancing shelf life and maintaining quality. The integration of digital tools such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain technology, and predictive analytics will enable real-time monitoring, improved traceability, and efficient supply chain management. Additionally, the development of intelligent packaging systems, smart sensors, and automation in sorting and grading will further improve postharvest handling. Sustainable approaches, including biodegradable packaging materials and the utilization of agro-waste for bioplastics and biofertilizers, will contribute to environmental conservation and resource efficiency.

Challenges

Despite significant advancements, several challenges limit the widespread adoption of modern postharvest technologies. High initial investment costs and lack of adequate cold chain infrastructure remain major constraints, particularly in developing countries. Limited technical knowledge, lack of skilled manpower, and insufficient awareness among farmers and stakeholders further hinder implementation. Regulatory issues and lack of standardization for emerging technologies, especially nanotechnology and antimicrobial agents, pose additional barriers. Consumer concerns regarding food safety, chemical residues, and potential sensory changes also affect acceptance. Furthermore, maintaining a balance between cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and technological efficiency continues to be a critical challenge in postharvest management systems.

Conclusion

In recent years, innovative postharvest technologies have played a vital role in extending the shelf life and maintaining the quality of vegetables. These advancements contribute significantly to reducing postharvest losses and improving food security by ensuring that vegetables retain their nutritional value and marketability throughout the supply chain.

The integration of modern technologies such as active and intelligent packaging, controlled storage systems, and digital tools can greatly enhance postharvest management practices. As global demand for fresh produce continues to increase, the adoption of these advanced and sustainable solutions will be essential to address food supply challenges and promote environmentally responsible agricultural practices.

References

1. Adhikari B, GC A. Post-harvest practices of horticultural crops in Nepal: issues and management. Arch Agric Environ Sci. 2021;6(2):227-233.
2. Arah IK, Ahorbo GK, Anku EK, Kumah EK, Amaglo H. Postharvest handling practices and treatment methods for tomato handlers in developing countries: a mini review. Adv Agric. 2016;6436945:1-8.
3. Baburao PB. Postharvest evaluation of bitter gourd as influenced by growing condition, harvest maturity, prepacking and storage [MSc thesis]. Thrissur: Kerala Agricultural University; 2013. p. 1-63.
4. Bai H, Zhou G, Hu Y, Sun A, Xu X, Liu X, et al. Traceability technologies for farm animals and their products in China. Food Control. 2017;79:35-43.
5. Beckles DM. Factors affecting the postharvest soluble solids and sugar content of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit. Postharvest Biol Technol. 2012;63(1):129-140.
6. Budhathoki P, Pandey SK, Magar PD. Review on postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables to minimize loss. Food Agric Econ Rev. 2022;2(1):37-40.
7. Burdock GA, Carabin IG. Generally recognized as safe (GRAS): history and description. Toxicol Lett. 2004;150(1):3-18.
8. Charles F, Sanchez J, Gontard N. Active modified atmosphere packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables: modeling with tomatoes and oxygen absorber. J Food Sci. 2003;68(5):1736-1742.
9. Chen L, He T, Li Z, Zheng W, An S, Zhangzhong L. Grading method for tomato multi-view shape using machine vision. Int J Agric Biol Eng. 2024;16(6):184196.
10. Chhetri RT, Magar P, Kandel S, Gnyawali P. A review paper on post-harvest loss on fruits and vegetables. Food Agric Econ Rev. 2022;3(1):1-4.
11. Coles R, McDowell D, Kirwan MJ, editors. Food packaging technology. Vol. 5. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2003.
12. Das SK, Vishakha K, Das S, Chakraborty D, Ganguli A. Carboxymethyl cellulose and cardamom oil in a nanoemulsion edible coating inhibit the growth of foodborne pathogens and extend the shelf life of tomatoes. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol. 2022;42:102369.
13. De S, Banerjee S, Banerjee S. Managing postharvest losses of vegetables and fruits: a methodological review. Recent Adv Food Nutr Agric. 2024;15(2):138-162.
14. Exama A, Arul J, Lencki RW, Lee LZ, Toupin C. Suitability of plastic films for modified atmosphere packaging of fruits and vegetables. J Food Sci. 1993;58(6):1365-1370.
15. Fang H, Zhou Q, Yang Q, Zhou X, Cheng S, Wei B, et al. Influence of combined edible coating with chitosan and tea polyphenol on the quality deterioration and health-promoting compounds in harvested broccoli. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2022;15(2):407-420.
16. Faqeerzada MA, Rahman A, Joshi R, Park E, Cho BK. Postharvest technologies for fruits and vegetables in South Asian countries: a review. Korean J Agric Sci. 2018;45(3):325-353.
17. Ghaani M, Cozzolino CA, Castelli G, Farris S. An overview of the intelligent packaging technologies in the food sector. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2016;51:1-11.
18. Ireri D, Belal E, Okinda C, Makange N, Ji C. A computer vision system for defect discrimination and grading in tomatoes using machine learning and image processing. Artif Intell Agric. 2019;2:28-37.
19. Iwuagwu CC, Ezeufoh UV. Comparative effect of two storage methods on quality of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) fruits in Awka-South local government area, Nigeria. FUDMA J Sci. 2024;8(3):257-260.
20. Jany MNH, Sarker C, Mazumder MAR, Shidker MFH. Effect of storage conditions on quality and shelf life of selected winter vegetables. J Bangladesh Agric Univ. 2008;6(2):391-400.
21. Jin S, Ding Z, Xie J. Modified atmospheric packaging of fresh-cut amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor L.) for extending shelf life. Agric. 2021;11(10):1016.
22. Karoney EM, Molelekoa T, Bill M, Siyoum N, Korsten L. Global research network analysis of fresh produce postharvest technology: innovative trends for loss reduction. Postharvest Biol Technol. 2024;208:112642.
23. Kirci M, Isaksson O, Seifert R. Managing perishability in the fruit and vegetable supply chains. Sustain. 2022;14(9):5378.
24. Lawal MT, Musa AK, Adeyemi KD, Yusuf SY, Bakare KD, Ogundare MO. Effects of storage containers on postharvest properties of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Niger J Ent. 2023;39:56-67.
25. Londhe DH, Nalawade SM, Pawar GS, Atkari VT, Wandkar SV. Grader: a review of different methods of grading for fruits and vegetables. Agric Eng Int CIGR J. 2013;15(3):217-230.
26. Mahendran R, Jayashree GC, Alagusundaram K. Application of computer vision technique on sorting and grading of fruits and vegetables. J Food Process Technol. 2012;10:1-6.
27. Majubwa RO, Msogoya TJ, Mtui HD, Shango AJ. Coolbot coldroom technology enhance postharvest quality and shelf-life of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruits. Tanzania J Agric Sci. 2022;21(1):11-21.
28. Mohebi E, Marquez L. Intelligent packaging in meat industry: an overview of existing solutions. J Food Sci Technol. 2015;52:3947-3964.
29. Neshawy SM, Elkholi TM, Hegazy SH. Influence of sanitization process on maintaining sweet potato quality for export. J Agric Sci Technol. 2024;14:31-37.
30. Nyaura J. Vitamin C content of vegetable amaranth during modified atmospheric storage. In: Scientific Conference Proceedings; 2014 May 27. p. 1-5.
31. Oz AT, Akyol B. Effects of calcium chloride plus coating in modified-atmosphere packaging storage on whole-radish postharvest quality. J Sci Food Agric. 2020;100(10):3942-3949.
32. Ozdemir M, Floros JD. Active food packaging technologies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2004;44(3):185193.
33. Pandey R, Naik S, Marfatia R. Image processing and machine learning for automated fruit grading system: a technical review. Int J Comput Appl. 2013;81(16):29-39.
34. Patil M, Sharma S, Sridhar K, Anurag RK, Grover K, Dharni K, et al. Effect of postharvest treatments and storage temperature on the physiological, nutritional, and shelf-life of broccoli (Brassica oleracea) microgreens. Sci Hortic. 2024;327:112805.
35. Pokhrel B. Review on post-harvest handling to reduce loss of fruits and vegetables. Int J Hortic Food Sci. 2021;2(2):48-52.
36. Prajapati U, Asrey R, Sinha SK, Joshi A, Varghese E, Meena NK. Salicylic acid and putrescine treatments reduce yellowing, decay and retain postharvest quality of bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) during cold storage. S Afr J Bot. 2024;164:111-120.
37. Prajapati U, Asrey R, Varghese E, Sharma RR. Effects of calcium lactate on postharvest quality of bitter gourd fruit during cold storage. Physiol Mol Biol Plants. 2021;27(8):1811-1821.
38. Preetha P, Varadharaju N, Vennila P. Enhancing the shelf life of fresh-cut bitter gourd using modified atmospheric packaging. Afr J Agric Res. 2015;10(17):1943-1951.
39. Qiao J, Wang L, Wang L, Li Z, Huai Y, Zhang S, et al. Development and characterization of modified gelatinbased cling films with antimicrobial and antioxidant activities and their application in the preservation of cherry tomatoes. Antioxidants. 2024;13(4):431.
40. Ramady HR, Domokos-Szabolcsy É, Abdalla NA, Taha HS, Fári M. Postharvest management of fruits and vegetables storage. Sustain Agric Rev. 2015;15:65-152.
41. Ridolfi C, Hoffmann V, Baral S. Post-harvest losses in fruits and vegetables: the Kenyan context. Intl Food Policy Res Inst. 2018;1-15.
42. Rokaya PR, Baral DR, Gautam DM, Shrestha AK, Paudyal KP. Effect of postharvest treatments on quality and shelf life of mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco). Am J Plant Sci. 2016;7(7):1098-1105.
43. Rux G, Mahajan PV, Linke M, Pant A, Sängerlaub S, Caleb OJ, et al. Humidity-regulating trays: moisture absorption kinetics and applications for fresh produce packaging. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2016;9:709-716.
44. Sajjan M, Kulkarni L, Anami B, NB G. Computer vision based-quality evaluation of color for commercial chilli paprika trade. Int J Adv Sci Technol. 2020;29(3):1306113071.
45. Seo HS, Bang J, Kim H, Beuchat LR, Cho SY, Ryu JH. Development of an antimicrobial sachet containing encapsulated allyl isothiocyanate to inactivate Escherichia coli O157:H7 on spinach leaves. Int J Food Microbiol. 2012;159(2):136-143.
46. Sharma C, Pathak P, Yadav SP, Gautam S. Potential of emerging "all-natural" edible coatings to prevent postharvest losses of vegetables and fruits for sustainable agriculture. Prog Org Coat. 2024;193:108537.
47. Shirazi A, Cameron AC. Controlling relative humidity in modified atmosphere packages of tomato fruit. HortSci. 1992;27(4):336-339.
48. Siddiqui MW, Rahman MS, Wani AA, editors. Innovative packaging of fruits and vegetables: strategies for safety and quality maintenance. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2018.
49. Singh S, Chaurasia SNS, Sharma S, Behera TK. Effect of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) on quality and shelf-life of cucumber during cold storage. Indian J Hortic. 2024;81(2):215-220.
50. Sree KP, Sree MS, Samreen PS. Application of chitosan edible coating for preservation of tomato. Int J Chem Stud. 2020;8(4):3281-3285.
51. Sucharitha KV, Beulah AM, Ravikiran K. Effect of chitosan coating on storage stability of tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill). Int Food Res J. 2018;25(1):93-99.
52. Sushma K, Padma M, Rajkumar M, Goud CR, Kumar BN, Gouthami P. Standardization on effect of storage and packaging materials on shelf life and quality of ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula L.). Int J Environ Clim Chang. 2024;14(2):750-770.
53. Suwannarak J, Phanumong P, Rattanapanone N. Combined effect of calcium salt treatments and chitosan coating on quality and shelf life of carved fruits and vegetables. CMUJ Nat Sci. 2015;14(3):269-284.
54. Tafi E, Triunfo M, Guarnieri A, Ianniciello D, Salvia R, Scieuzo C, et al. Preliminary investigation on the effect of insect-based chitosan on preservation of coated fresh cherry tomatoes. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):7030.
55. Tao S, Wang J, Xie J. Influence of different pre-cooling methods on the freshness preservation of bok choi (Brassica rapa var. chinensis). Food Chem. 2024;23:101599.
56. Tolasa M, Gedamu F, Woldetsadik K. Impacts of harvesting stages and pre-storage treatments on shelf life and quality of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Cogent Food Agric. 2021;7(1):1863620.
57. Wang Z, Wang Y, Shi J, Zheng Q, Gao L, Wang Q, et al. Effects of putrescine on the postharvest physiology characteristics in cowpea. Food Sci Nutr. 2019;7(2):395403.
58. Wei L, Liu C, Wang J, Younas S, Zheng H, Zheng L. Melatonin immersion affects the quality of fresh-cut broccoli (Brassica oleracea L.) during cold storage: focus on the antioxidant system. J Food Process Preserv. 2020;44(9):14691.
59. Wendimagegn. Causes of post-harvest losses of horticultural crops in Ethiopia [Internet]. Ethiopian Press Agency; 2020. Available from: Ethiopian Press Agency
60. Workineh M, Lemma H. Post harvest loss management and quality control of fruits and vegetables in Ethiopia for securing food and nutrition-A review. Food Sci Qual Manag. 2020;100:21-28.
61. Zhang C, Zhou P, Mei J, Xie J. Effects of different precooling methods on the shelf life and quality of sweet corn (Zea mays L.). Plants. 2023;12(12):2370.
62. Aminah A, Anna PK. Influence of ripening stages on physicochemical characteristics and antioxidant properties of bitter gourd (Momordica charantia). International Food Research Journal. 2011 Aug 1;18(3).
63. Dhillon SS, Vitiello MS, Linfield EH, Davies AG, Hoffmann MC, Booske J, Paoloni C, Gensch M, Weightman P, Williams GP, Castro-Camus E. The 2017 terahertz science and technology roadmap. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 2017 Feb 2;50(4):043001. International Journal of Advanced Biochemistry Research https://www.biochemjournal.com
64. Teka TA. Analysis of the effect of maturity stage on the postharvest biochemical quality characteristics of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) fruit. International Research Journal of Pharmaceutical and Applied Sciences. 2013;3(5):180-6.
65. Alabi OA, Adeoluwa YM, Huo X, Xu X, Bakare AA. Environmental contamination and public health effects of electronic waste: an overview. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 2021 Jun;19(1):1209-27.
66. Alabi AB, Romanowsky AJ, Forbes DA, Brodie JP, Okabe N. An expanded catalogue of low surface brightness galaxies in the Coma cluster using Subaru/Suprime-Cam. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 2020 Aug;496(3):3182-97.
67. Das MS, Jain-Chandra MS, Kochhar MK, Kumar N. Women workers in India: why so few among so many?. International Monetary Fund; 2015 Mar 16.
68. Carlos MR, Aragón ME, González LC, Escalante HJ, Martínez F. Evaluation of detection approaches for road anomalies based on accelerometer readingsAddressing who's who. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems. 2018 Jan 18;19(10):3334-43.
69. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, Niu P. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. New England journal of medicine. 2020 Feb 20;382(8):72733.
70. Shen DW, Pouliot LM, Hall MD, Gottesman MM. Cisplatin resistance: a cellular self-defense mechanism resulting from multiple epigenetic and genetic changes. Pharmacological reviews. 2012 Jul 1;64(3):706-21.
71. Ribeiro JD, Huang X, Fox KR, Franklin JC. Depression and hopelessness as risk factors for suicide ideation, attempts and death: meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 2018 May;212(5):279-86.
72. Elansari AM, Hobani AI. Effect of temperature and moisture content on thermal conductivity of four types of meat. International Journal of Food Properties. 2009 Mar 31;12(2):308-15.
73. Zainal NZ, Hussin H, Abd Rahim NH, Nazri MN, Suhaimi MA. Open government data use by Malaysian researchers. some empirical evidence. In2019 6th International Conference on Research and Innovation in Information Systems (ICRIIS) 2019 Dec 2 (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
74. Chepngeno J, Diaz A, Paim FC, Saif LJ, Vlasova AN. Rotavirus C: Prevalence in suckling piglets and development of virus-like particles to assess the influence of maternal immunity on the disease development. Veterinary research. 2019 Oct 22;50(1):84.
75. Elsisi, S.F., Taha, A.T. and Omar, M.N., 2020. Cucumber Hydrocooling Treatment and its Relationship to Quality Properties during Cold Storage. Journal of Soil Sciences & Agricultural Engineering, 11(9).
76. Cantre, D., E. Herremans, P. Verboven,J.H. AmpofoAsiama, and B. M. Nicolaï. 2017. Tissue breakdown of mango (Mangifera indica L. cv. Carabao) due to chilling injury. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 125(1):99111.
77. Gleice,S. M. E., S. A.Basílio, M. D. Milan, N. Arruda,andK. S. S. Benett. 2019. Hydrocooling efficiency on postharvest conservation and quality of arugula. Revista de Agricultura Neotropical, 6(4): 36-41.
78. Vandana Kochhar, V.K. and Satish Kumar, S.K., 2015. Effect of different pre-cooling methods on the quality and shelf life of broccoli.
79. Gong, Y.F., Cao, Y. and Zhang, X.R., 2021. Forced-air precooling of apples: Airflow distribution and precooling effectiveness in relation to the gap width between tray edge and box wall. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 177, p.111523.
80. Han, J.W., Zhao, C.J., Qian, J.P., Ruiz-Garcia, L. and Zhang, X., 2018. Numerical modeling of forced-air cooling of palletized apple: Integral evaluation of cooling efficiency. International Journal of Refrigeration, 89, pp.131-141.
81. Jia, B., Wang, X., Hou, Q., Hu, M., Zhang, Q., Sun, G. and Xin, Y., 2026. Parametric analysis and optimal air velocity selection in forced air pre-cooling: effects of packaging quantity. International Journal of Food Engineering, (0).
82. Song, X.Y., Liu, B.L. and Jaganathan, G.K., 2016. Mathematical simulation on the surface temperature variation of fresh-cut leafy vegetable during vacuum cooling. international journal of refrigeration, 65, pp.228-237.
83. Prajapati U, Asrey R, Varghese E, Sharma RR. Effects of calcium lactate on postharvest quality of bitter gourd fruit during cold storage. Physiol Mol Biol Plants. 2021;27(8):1811-1821.
84. Prajapati U, Asrey R, Sinha SK, Joshi A, Varghese E, Meena NK. Salicylic acid and putrescine treatments reduce yellowing, decay and retain postharvest quality of bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) during cold storage. S Afr J Bot. 2024;164:111-120.
85. Pinto L, Palma A, Cefola M, Pace B, D'Aquino S, Carboni C, et al. Effect of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and gaseous ozone pre-packaging treatment on the physico-chemical, microbiological, and sensory quality of small berry fruit. Food Packag Shelf Life. 2020;26:100573-100573.
86. Roopnarine S, Mohammed M. Effect of modified atmosphere packaging on storability and quality attributes of fresh-cut cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp). J Hortic Postharvest Res. 2021;4:55-66
87. Siddiqui, M.W., Homa, F., Lata, D., Ahmad, M.S. and Surabhi, 2021. Exogenous nitric oxide delays ripening and maintains postharvest quality of pointed gourd during storage. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 40(6), pp.2371-2378.
88. Eshpari, H., 2011. Evaluation of vacuum packaging on the physical properties, solubility, and storage space of dairy powders. California Polytechnic State University.
89. Esturk, O., Ayhan, Z. and Gokkurt, T., 2014, Production and application of active packaging film with ethylene adsorber to increase the shelf life of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica). Packag. Technol. Sci., 27(3): 179-191.
90. Muriel-Galet, V., Cerisuelo, J.P., Lopez-Carballo, G., Aucejo, S., Gavara, R. and Hernandez-Munoz, P., 2013. Evaluation of EVOH-coated PP films with oregano essential oil and citral to improve the shelf-life of packaged salad. Food Control, 30(1), pp.137-143.
91. Fernández, A., Picouet, P. and Lloret, E., 2010. Cellulose-silver nanoparticle hybrid materials to control spoilage-related microflora in absorbent pads located in trays of fresh-cut melon. International journal of food microbiology, 142(1-2), pp.222-228.
92. Burt S. 2004. Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential application in foods -a review. Journal of Food Microbiology 94(3): 223-253. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.03.022.
93. Antunes M.D.C., Cavaco A.M. 2010. The use of essential oils for postharvest decay control. A Review. Flavour and Fragrance Journal 25(5): 351-366. DOI: 10.1002/ffj.1986.
94. Yam, K.L. and Lee, D.S. eds., 2012. Emerging food packaging technologies: principles and practice. Elsevier.
95. Anthon, G.E., LeStrange, M. and Barrett, D.M., 2011. Changes in pH, acids, sugars and other quality parameters during extended vine holding of ripe processing tomatoes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 91(7), pp.1175-1181.
96. Jayas DS, Jeyamkondan S (2002) Modified atmosphere packaging of fresh fruit and vegetables: bio-system engineering approach to design equilibrium modified atmosphere packages. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und - Technologie 35 (2), 234-258.
97. Pholsin, R., Shiekh, K.A., Jafari, S., Kijpatanasilp, I., Nan, T.N., Suppavorasatit, I. and Assatarakul, K., 2024. Impact of pectin edible coating extracted from cacao shell powder on postharvest quality attributes of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) fruit during storage. Food Control, 155, p.110023.