Battery-powered belt-type vegetable seed planter

Introduction Background and Importance of Agriculture Mechanization

Agricultural mechanization stands as a fundamental element in today's farming practices, providing opportunities to boost efficiency, reduce manual labor, and increase overall farm productivity. In countries like India, where agriculture remains a primary means of livelihood, mechanization is especially important in tackling challenges such as labor shortages and increasing labor costs. Research shows that implementing mechanized solutions can improve productivity by 30-40%, while also ensuring that essential farming operations are completed on time an important factor for successful crop establishment [1] . Among the various farming operations, seed sowing is especially labor-intensive and time-sensitive. Even small delays or mistakes during this stage can lead to significant yield losses. Studies have shown that timely and uniform planting can boost crop yields by nearly 25% [2] . India ranks as the world's second-largest producer of vegetables, contributing approximately 212.55 million tonnes in 2023-24. This accounts for nearly 12% of the global vegetable production [3] . Despite India's significant role in global agriculture, small and marginal farmers who make up the majority of the farming population continue to depend on traditional planting methods like broadcasting, dibbling, or sowing behind the plough. While these techniques are cost-effective, they often result in uneven seed depth, inconsistent spacing, and lower germination rates (Atwal and Jaswal, 2024; Saqib et al., 2025) [4,5] . Mechanizing vegetable seed sowing presents an effective way to overcome these challenges by delivering precise control over seed placement and depth. This precision helps optimize plant populations and enhances the overall quality of the yield.

Evolution of Vegetable Planting Technologiesisk

The successful establishment of vegetable crops largely hinges on how evenly seeds are placed in terms of both spacing and depth.

Below is a brief summary of commonly used planting methods along with their practical advantages and limitations.

• Broadcasting: Broadcast seeding is a fast and inexpensive technique where seeds are spread across the soil surface. However, it often results in uneven seed distribution and inconsistent planting depth, which can cause patchy germination, overcrowded plants, and ineffective weed control. This method is mainly used for crops like wheat and rice, where precise planting is not as crucial [4,5] • Dibbling: Dibbling involves placing seeds individually into holes at consistent spacing and depth, which supports uniform germination and efficient use of soil, water, and sunlight. This precise method encourages healthy plant growth and higher yields, while also minimizing seed wastage and simplifying maintenance tasks like weeding. However, dibbling is labor-intensive and time-consuming, making it less practical for very small seeds or large-scale farming operations (Atwal and Jaswal, 2024; Saqib et al., 2025) [4; 5] . • Sowing Behind the Plough: In this traditional method, seeds are placed either by hand or mechanically into furrows created by ploughs. As the plough moves forward, the seeds are covered with soil. Commonly used on farms with animal-or tractor-drawn ploughs, this approach improves seed-to-soil contact, which enhances germination and helps protect seeds from birds and moisture loss. While more effective than broadcasting, it still demands a considerable amount of labor [4] . • Drilling: Drilling involves using a seed drill machine to plant seeds in straight rows with uniform depth and spacing, ensuring accurate placement and minimizing seed loss. This technique enhances germination, supports better root development, and improves weed control, making it a preferred choice for crops like wheat, rice, and pulses. Some advanced drills also allow simultaneous fertilizer application. However, the equipment is costly and requires regular maintenance, which can make it less accessible for small-scale farmers [4] . • Transplanting: Transplanting involves growing seeds in a nursery or greenhouse and later relocating the seedlings to the main field once they are strong enough. This approach allows farmers to select the healthiest plants, promoting uniform growth and higher yields. It is widely used for crops such as rice, tomatoes, and cabbages. While effective, transplanting is labor-intensive, expensive, and timeconsuming [4] .

Need for Battery-Operated Planters

Conventional tractor-operated planters work well on large farms, but they aren't suitable for small-scale vegetable cultivation. Their high cost, bulky design, and reliance on fossil fuels make them impractical for smallholder farmers [6] (Dave and Aviral 2016). Their operational inefficiency, along with increasing fuel prices and growing environmental concerns, limits their use among farmers with limited resources. Vacuum seeders, while offering high precision, are also expensive and require frequent maintenance [7] .

In contrast, battery-operated solutions provide a sustainable and affordable alternative. They are lightweight, portable, and energy-efficient, allowing smallholder farmers to adopt mechanization without depending on costly tractors or fossil fuels [8] . Moreover, battery-operated machines can be powered using renewable energy sources like solar power, making them a strong fit for global sustainability efforts [9] . Lead-acid batteries, while having a limited lifespan, offer a dependable and budgetfriendly power source, helping to reduce the barriers to entry for smallholder farmers [10] . Importantly, these systems can maintain consistent seed placement and spacing, offering precision on par with larger mechanized planters while greatly cutting down on labor costs [11] .

Significance of Belt-Type Seed Metering Mechanisms

Seed metering plays a key role in a planter's efficiency, with systems ranging from vacuum-based mechanisms for fine seeds to finger pick-up systems for larger grains. Belt-type metering is especially suitable for vegetable crops, as it delivers precise seed placement, reduces seed damage, and ensures consistent spacing [12, 13] . Studies show that belt-type planters can reach placement accuracies of up to 93%, greatly enhancing uniformity and minimizing errors like skips or doubles [14] . Additionally, the relatively simple design of belt-type systems lowers maintenance costs and improves durability, making them a practical choice for smallholder use.

Problem Statement and Research Objectives

Despite the clear benefits of mechanized planting systems, their uptake among smallholder farmers in India remains low due to financial limitations, technical challenges, and lack of supporting infrastructure. Most available mechanized options are either too costly, depend on fossil fuels, or are too complicated for effective use on small farms. As a result, many farmers still depend on manual planting methods, which often lead to uneven plant spacing, higher labor costs, and reduced crop yields [15,16] . This underscores the urgent need for a planting system that is affordable, energy-efficient, and easy to use-specifically designed for vegetable farmers working on small plots.

To bridge this gap, the present study centers on developing and standardizing a battery-powered belt-type seed planter. This innovative system aims to blend the cost-effectiveness and sustainability of electric power with the precision and dependability of belt-type seed metering. The research focuses on determining the power requirements of a single-row belt metering mechanism, creating a suitable battery-operated drive system, and fine-tuning operational settings to ensure accurate seed placement under varying field conditions. Additionally, the planter's performance will be evaluated based on accuracy, efficiency, and real-world usability. By addressing the shortcomings of both manual and conventional tractor-operated planters, this study supports sustainable mechanization in vegetable farming. It helps reduce labor requirements and operating costs while aligning with global shifts toward electrification and climate-resilient agricultural practices.

Materials and Methods

Scope and Design Considerations

This study focused on designing, prototyping, and standardizing a battery-operated, single-row belt-type vegetable seed planter for crops like okra, onion, and cabbage. Designed with smallholder needs in mind, the machine prioritizes portability, affordability, ease of use and maintenance, and consistent accuracy in seed placement and depth. Key features include gentle seed handling, uniform metering, and ergonomic design elements such as adjustable depth settings and easy battery access. To accommodate different seed sizes, the planter uses an interchangeable belt with calibrated pockets, while battery power allows for cordless, quiet, and environmentally friendly operation [17] . The single-row design was maintained to improve maneuverability and minimize both capital investment and maintenance demands, making it ideal for small plots. The design of the battery-operated belt-type vegetable seed planter is shown in Figure 1.

Seed Material and Physical Properties

Representative seeds of okra (Phule Utkarsha), onion (Phule Samarth), and cabbage (Green Flash) were used to cover a range of sizes and shapes typical in vegetable planting studies, with uniformity prioritized to reduce metering variability. Measurements of length (L), width (W), and thickness (T) were taken on random samples using a digital vernier caliper (0.01 mm resolution) to determine hole sizing and pocket geometry [18] .

• Sphericity (φ): Computed from L, W, T to describe shape roundness affecting hopper flow and pocket release; seeds with higher φ flow more smoothly through metering systems [18] . • Thousand-seed weight (TSW): Determined using an analytical balance to support seed-rate calibration and pocket sizing; TSW variation informs belt hole area and seed spacing settings [17,19] . • Bulk density (kg m⁻³): Measured by filling a container of known volume without compacting the contents and then weighing it; this data helps determine hopper size and feeding behavior [18] . • Angle of repose (θ): Estimated based on the height and base diameter of a seed pile; this measurement helps determine hopper wall angles to minimize bridging [20] .

Planter Architecture and Fabrication

The prototype includes the following components: (i) seed hopper, (ii) belt-type metering mechanism, (iii) seed delivery tube, (iv) furrow opener and closer, (v) drive wheels, (vi) DC motor with electronic speed controller (ESC), and (vii) a steel frame. Components were first modeled in CAD and then fabricated from locally serviceable materials for durability and ease of repair [21] .

• Hopper: A trapezoidal sheet-metal hopper with sloped walls and a rectangular outlet was sized from bulk density and flow tests to minimize bridging; the outlet aligns directly above the belt to ensure consistent pickup. (Design narrative per CAD is provided in the source file.) • Belt-type metering unit: An endless belt with equidistant, crop-specific holes meters single seeds by gravity pickup and pocket conveyance. Hole diameters and pitch were tuned to seed size/shape (φ, TSW) and agronomic spacing targets for the three crops [22] . • Seed tube: A straight, smooth-wall descent positioned under belt discharge limits rebound and loss, guiding seeds into the opener trench. • Furrow opener and closer: Mild-steel shovel openers form a shallow furrow; a paired closer/press mechanism covers and lightly compacts soil over the seed. Dimensions and geometry were selected to promote consistent placement and gentle coverage in tilled soil. • Drive wheels and ground contact: A 250 mm Ø × 80 mm mild-steel wheel with spokes and lugs provides traction while limiting compaction. Circumference (~785 mm) supported calibration of travel per revolution; lugging improves grip and self-cleaning [23] . • Frame and handle: A welded mild-steel frame supports subsystems with provisions for depth adjustment and service access; the single-row footprint favors small-plot maneuvering.

Powertrain and Control Power Requirement

Draft force was measured in tilled, sandy-loam conditions and used with operating speed to estimate power by the IS 6316:1993 approach. Including a safety margin, the requirement was 327 W, guiding motor/battery sizing.

Motor and Gearing

A 24 V, 350 W DC geared motor was selected (rated 324 rpm after reduction; ≤19.2 A). Final sprocket selection and overall ratio were tuned so the drive wheel speed matches target ground speeds with torque headroom.

Speed Control (ESC)

A PWM controller (12-40 V, 8 A, 13 kHz) using TL494 regulated motor speed with linear response across knob positions; this provided stable ground-speed control and consistent metering under variable load.

Battery and Converter Specification

To meet a 350 Wh (1 h × 350 W) energy budget, a 24 V pack with ≈15 Ah usable capacity was targeted [24,25] . The solution used two 12 V, 35 Ah lead-acid batteries (type 34B19LMF; ~10.1 kg each), supported by a compact DC-DC step-up module for transient higher-load demands.

Experimental Design and Operating Levels

A factorial completely randomized design (FCRD) assessed the effects of forward speed and sowing depth on metering accuracy. Three speeds (0.8, 1.2, 1.5 km h⁻¹) and three depths (10, 20, 30 mm) produced nine treatment combinations (S₁D₁ … S₃D₃) as shown in Table 1 and Table 2, consistent with agronomic ranges reported in recent studies [26] .

Calibration and laboratory procedures

• Planter calibration: Following IS 6316:1993, groundwheel circumference was measured and the revolutions for 1/25 ha were computed. With the planter raised, a fixed number of wheel turns were executed and discharged seeds were collected and weighed to verify seed-rate delivery against theoretical values; belt speed was adjusted accordingly (BIS IS 6316:1993). • Uniformity (sand-bed) test: The IS 6316:1993 sand-bed method was used to quantify seed spacing uniformity (misses, multiples, and precision index) under controlled conditions that mimic field travel. • Germination test: To ensure metering did not compromise viability, seeds were soaked 24 h (pre-hydration) and then placed on moist tissue in a closed container; germination (%) was computed as germinated/total ×100 after observation [17,27] .

Result and Discussion

This section deals with designing, fabricating, and testing a battery-operated vegetable seed planter under laboratory and actual field conditions. It also conducts and systematically gives the preliminary test for seed planter design considerations. The section studies the physical characteristics of seeds under consideration, testing results, evaluation, and field performance of the prototype-developed machine. The present study also considered cost economics and its utility in farmer's fields.

Laboratory Test Physical Properties of Seeds

The physical properties of seeds are crucial for designing the belt and determining the size of the seed-dropping holes along its edge. These characteristics play a key role in shaping and optimizing the seed metering mechanism. Factors such as seed size, shape, sphericity, thousand seed weight, bulk density, and angle of repose directly impact how efficiently seeds are handled, metered, and placed. To ensure precise calibration of the belt-type metering system, the physical dimensions of the selected seeds Okra (Phule Utkarsha), Onion (Phule Samarth), and Cabbage (Green Flash) were carefully analyzed.

Seed dimensions and sphericity:

As illustrated in Figure 2, okra seeds had the largest dimensions, with an average length of about 5.30 mm, width of 4.71 mm, thickness of 3.99 mm, and a sphericity (φ) of approximately 0.87. Their geometric mean diameter (GMD) was around 4.47 mm. In contrast, onion seeds were the smallest and least spherical, measuring roughly 2.86 mm in length, 2.50 mm in width, and 1.08 mm in thickness, with a sphericity of about 0.69 and a GMD of approximately 1.57 mm. Cabbage seeds were relatively round (length ≈ 2.15 mm, width ≈ 1.99 mm, thickness ≈ 1.53 mm, φ ≈ 0.87) and their GMD was around 1.86 mm. Overall variability was modest, but the highest was observed in okra thickness (CV ≈ 12%) and cabbage width (CV ≈ 14%). This suggested that the belt's pocket diameter and chamfer required slight safety margins to prevent seed jams and doubles.

Design takeaway: The use of interchangeable belts is well justified okra requires larger, more forgiving pockets, while onion and cabbage need tighter holes to avoid double seeding. Thousand-seed weight (TSW): T SW was ~43 g (okra), 4 g (onion), and 5 g (cabbage) as shown in Figure 3. This nine to ten-fold spread explains the different kinetic responses in metering: heavier okra benefits from slightly deeper pockets and a gentler pocket-release slope; onion/cabbage allow smaller pockets and closer pitch without increasing doubles.

Design takeaway: pocket volume and pitch should be cropspecific; okra belts must prioritize single-seed capture without bounce-out, while onion/cabbage belts can prioritize throughput. Bulk density and angle of repose: As shown in Figure 4 bulk density trended highest for okra (≈0.54 g cm⁻³) and lower for onion/cabbage; the angle of repose was greatest for onion (≈39°), indicating a higher bridging risk at the hopper outlet.

Design takeaway: hopper wall angles must be steeper for onion and outlet lips should be radiused or polished to reduce stagnation; for okra, capacity can be exploited without compromising flow. Germination after metering: As shown in Table 3 the high post-metering germination (≈88-93% across crops) confirms that belt pickup and release are non-injurious, validating the gentlehandling objective of the belt mechanism. with low dispersion across replicates-evidence that the belt, sprocket ratio, and wheel circumference collectively yield repeatable seed rates under quasi-static conditions. Okra Model significance and shape: MI and MulI models were highly significant (R² ≈ 0.76-0.81), with strong quadratic effects of speed and a weaker effect of depth. PI exhibited very high explanatory power (R² ≈ 0.92) with significant quadratic terms for both speed and depth.

Optima: All three indices converged to an operating region near 1.2 km h⁻¹ and 20 mm depth-minimum MI and MulI, maximum PI. Interpretation: Okra's larger, heavier seeds perform best at moderate operating speeds, which help reduce seed bounce, and at mid-depth furrows that stabilize seed drop and soil coverage resulting in more uniform crop stands. The 3D surface plots in Figures 7,8, and 9 visually support these trends: Figure 7 shows the lowest missing index at moderate speed and depth, Figure 8 indicates that the multiple index is also minimized in this range, and Figure 9 shows the precision index reaching its peak near the same settings. All three plots MI, MulI, and PI display curved surfaces with valleys or peaks that clearly point to intermediate speeds (around 1.2 km/h) and mid-level depths (~20 mm) as the optimal conditions for okra seed placement. These results emphasize that operating at a balanced point delivers both minimal misses and doubles, along with high placement precision, which is especially critical for largerseeded crops like okra. Figure 13 shows the missing index minimized at moderate speed and mid-level depth, Figure 14 shows the multiple index exhibiting similar minimum zones, and Figure 15 displays a responsive peak in precision index near the same operational settings. The valley and peak patterns observed across all response surfaces suggest that cabbage seeds also reach optimal placement and uniformity under conditions similar to those for okra. This highlights the robustness and adaptability of the belt system design, even when handling seeds of varying sizes and shapes.

Discussion

Seed Properties and Design Implications

The physical properties of the seeds especially size, shape, and sphericity played a key role in shaping the design of the seed metering mechanism. Okra's larger size and higher sphericity made it suitable for larger pockets in the metering belt, reducing the risk of picking up multiple seeds at once. In contrast, the smaller and less spherical onion seeds required tighter pockets and carefully spaced pitch to prevent double seeding. Their lower sphericity also increased the likelihood of bridging in the hopper, which led to steeper hopper wall angles to ensure smooth seed flow. Cabbage seeds, though small, had high sphericity, allowing for tighter packing in the metering system without causing jams.

Calibration Performance and Validation

The calibration tests showed that the machine consistently achieved the desired seed rates, with only minor variations that fall within acceptable agricultural standards. For okra, onion, and cabbage, the seed rates stayed close to their theoretical values, indicating accurate performance by the metering system. Additionally, sand-bed testing confirmed uniform seed spacing, which is essential for healthy plant development. The low incidence of skips and doubles further validates the effectiveness of the design features, including the metering belt and seed delivery system.

Optimization Results and Implications for Seed Spacing

The RSM analysis highlighted the significant impact of forward speed and sowing depth on seed placement accuracy. For all three crops, the optimal conditions were identified as 1.2 km/h forward speed and a 20 mm sowing depth, which minimized both miss and multiple indices while maximizing precision.

These results indicate that a moderate speed and a 20 mm depth offer the best compromise between even seed distribution and effective soil coverage. The quadratic shape of the response surfaces suggests that even small changes in speed or depth can greatly influence performance, emphasizing the importance of fine-tuning these settings to match specific field conditions. This also demonstrates the planter's adaptability across different crops with only minor adjustments.

Field Performance and Efficiency

The field performance results aligned well with the laboratory and calibration tests, confirming the planter's ability to deliver high operational efficiency under real-world conditions. With field efficiency ranging from 81% to 85%, the machine proved effective in both speed and planting accuracy. Low wheel slip and moderate draft force further indicated that the planter was well-suited to the soil conditions encountered during trials. Energy consumption matched expected levels for batterypowered equipment, and emergence rates above 85% across all crops validated the planter's role in supporting healthy plant growth. These results suggest that the machine is a reliable and cost-effective solution for smallholder farmers engaged in vegetable seed planting.

Conclusion

This study successfully designed, developed, and standardized a battery-powered, single-row, belt-type vegetable seed planter specifically suited for smallholder farming conditions. Based on measured seed characteristics such as size, sphericity, bulk density, and angle of repose, the planter featured interchangeable belt pockets, an optimized hopper design, and a gentle seed delivery system that consistently achieved accurate single-seed pickup and placement across three key vegetable crops okra, onion, and cabbage. The compact powertrain, consisting of a DC geared motor with PWM control and a 24V lead-acid battery pack, enabled quiet, stable, and lowmaintenance operation ideal for use in fragmented fields and narrow planting beds. A structured program of calibration, laboratory sand-bed testing, and field evaluations confirmed that the prototype consistently delivers accurate seed rates and uniform intrarow spacing, with minimal misses and doubles. Response surface analyses of different speed and depth combinations identified a practical operating range that reliably balanced the missing, multiple, and precision indices across all tested crops. In the field, the planter maintained high operational efficiency, exhibited low slip on tilled sandy-loam soil, and supported strong seed emergence demonstrating that uniform seed placement translated into solid agronomic performance. A comparison of drive configurations revealed that front-wheel drive preserved planting accuracy while also reducing draft force and energy consumption. It also improved maneuverability and operator comfort, making it the preferred configuration for standardization.

Contributions: This work contributes: (i) a low-cost, batterypowered precision planting solution tailored for small and marginal farms; (ii) a belt-based metering standard that can be adapted to different crops through pocket sizing and pitch adjustments; and (iii) a clear set of operating guidelinesmoderate forward speed combined with shallow-to-moderate sowing depth that apply across various seed types. Together, these outcomes tackle key barriers to mechanized sowing in vegetable farming, including high capital costs, lack of portability, energy demands, and operational complexity, while still delivering the placement accuracy typically found in more advanced and expensive planters.

Future Work

The current standardization was carried out on tilled sandy-loam soil; therefore, further validation is needed across different soil types, moisture conditions, and surface residue levels. Future research should investigate traction performance in wet soils using alternative tread designs, scaling up to multi-row configurations, and developing quick-change belt systems for easier crop switching. Additional opportunities include integrating lightweight lithium-ion battery packs for longer runtime, incorporating solar-assisted charging, and adding affordable sensors (such as wheel RPM or seed-pass counters) for real-time rate monitoring. Large-scale, multi-season field trials that link seed placement metrics to yield and input efficiency will be essential to fully assess the system's wholefarm benefits.

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