Impact of black soldier fly frass in conjunction with urea on growth and yield of mustard (Brassica juncea L.) in Northern Telangana zone

Introduction

Mustard (Brassica juncea L.) is an important oilseed crop belonging to the family Brassicaceae. Its seeds generally contain about 40-45 percent oil and 20-25 percent protein and are widely used for edible oil, condiments, pickles and other food preparations. Mustard oil is also used for cooking and in several industrial products, while the leaves are consumed as vegetables and used as green fodder (Anup Das et al., 2018). In Telangana, mustard is cultivated mainly during the rabi season, particularly in the districts of Jagtial, Nizamabad, Nirmal and Kamareddy of the Northern Telangana Zone (Department of Agriculture, 2023). The crop therefore has importance in the agricultural production systems of the region. Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) has gained considerable attention as a biological system for converting organic wastes into valuable products. During this process, black soldier fly larvae produce frass, which consists of larval excreta, exuviae and residual feed material. The resulting material contains plant nutrients and organic matter and has been identified as a potential organic fertilizer and plant growth-promoting material (Klammsteiner et al., 2020; Schmitt and Devries, 2020; Garttling and Schulz, 2022) [1,2,3] . Several studies have reported beneficial effects of black soldier fly frass on plant growth and crop performance (Beesingamukama et al., 2020; Barragán et al., 2022). The nutrient composition and agronomic performance of black soldier fly frass can vary with the substrate used for insect rearing, making it necessary to evaluate its effect on individual crops under specific growing conditions. Although beneficial effects of frass have been reported in cereals and vegetable crops, information on its influence on growth, yield attributes and yield of oilseed crops such as mustard remains limited. Integration of black soldier fly frass with urea may provide both organic and readily available nitrogen and could favour crop growth and yield. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effect of black soldier fly larvae frass applied in conjunction with urea on growth, yield attributes and yield of mustard under net-house conditions in the Northern Telangana Zone.

Materials and methods

Experimental site

The pot culture experiment was carried out at shade net, Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS) farm, Polasa, Jagtial. The shade net was located in the Northern Telangana zone and 284.17 me-ters above mean sea level. Its geographical coordinates were 18° 50' 26'' North latitude and 78° 56' 59'' East longitude.

Initial soil properties

Experimental materials

Pot culture experiment

Pot culture experiment was conducted in the net house of the Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Polasa, Jagtial, Professor Jayashanker Telangana Agricultural University, Telangana. Glazed pots having 10 kg capacity were taken, labelled and filled with 10 kg of processed soil according to the treatments, the required quantities of BSFLF was incorporated and mixed thoroughly with the soil. The recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) for mustard was (60-40-40 kg ha -1 of N: P 2 O 5: K 2 O). Water was added to the soil samples to raise the moisture content to 50% of the field capacity. The moist samples were transferred in the pots and kept in the greenhouse.

Test crop

The crop chosen for the present experiment was Mustard (Brassica juncea L.). It was chosen as a test crop to see the effect of BSFLF equivalent and poultry manure equivalent as a source of nutrient. Variety of the crop used was Sitara sringar.

Sowing

The seeds of mustard were sown on 21 November 2024. Fourty seeds were sown in each pot and the upper layer was moistened with water to ensure proper germination. After germination of seeds, thinning was done to maintain five plants per pot. The plants were maintained in the pot culture and care was taken to ensure proper growth.

Manures and fertilizers

Black soldier fly larval frass is incorporated into pots as per treatment required. A recommended dose of 60-40-40 kg ha -1 of N:P 2 O 5 :K 2 O as urea, single superphosphate and muriate of potash. Entire dose of nitrogen applied at basal and before flowering.

Irrigation

One irrigation was given immediately after planting for proper establishment. Depending on the soil moisture content, further irrigations were given at an interval of 5 -10 days.

Weeding

Hand weeding was carried as per the required

Plant protection measures

Two sprays of insecticide viz. Dimethoate (Rogor 30 EC) was given using 625 ml of Dimethoate 30 EC in 200-250 L of clean water of hectare in succession at 15 days interval to avoid aphids infestation during experiment.

Harvesting

Harvesting was carried through manually after the crop showed physiological maturity. The crop was harvested, firstly by cutting down. Treatments wise plants were tied in bundles and left on threshing floor for drying. After drying, the harvested produce from each pot was threshed, dried, cleaned and collected in respective labelled bags as per the treatment.

OBSERVATIONS RECORDED

Five plants were taken from each pot and tagged in each replication and the mean value was calculated for crop growth and yield Plant growth parameters

The height of plants was measured from the surface of soil to the tip of plant at 15, 30, 45, 60 and at harvest after sowing with the help of a meter scale.

SPAD chlorophyll meter readings

The chlorophyll content of leaves from five tagged plants was estimated using SPAD chlorophyll meter at 15, 30, 45, 60 and at harvest.

Yield contributing characters and yield

Number of branches plant-1

Number of branches per plant of mustard were counted at days after sowing.

Total number of siliquae of five plants were recorded in each pot and average number for each plant was calculated.

Number of filled seeds siliquae-1

The number of seeds per siliqua were counted from five pods of each mustard plant in a pot and averaged to express number of seeds per siliqua.

Handful of seeds were counted from each pot, and thousand seeds were counted randomly and weighed to be expressed in g.

Seed yield

After harvesting of crop, seeds were separated from the plant, kept in paper bags and dried in hot air oven at 60 + 2 °C till the weight became constant and seed yield (g pot-1) was computed.

Stover yield

Stover yield from each pots were sundried and weights were recorded in grams. It was expressed as mg pot-1

The wholesome percentage of economic yield compared with biological yield (i.e., above ground biomass) is called harvest index (Salisbury and Ross, 1986). It was calculated by using following formula.

Statistical analysis

The crop data taken at different stages and at harvest were subjected to statistical analysis using completely randomized block design as illustrated by Panse et al. (1978) [4] . Statistical significance was tested by applying F-test at 0.05 level of probability and critical difference was calculated wherever treatments showed significant difference.

Results and discussion

The effect of different nitrogen management practices involving black soldier fly frass in conjunction with urea on plant height at different stages of crop growth is presented in Table 3.1. Plant height increased progressively from 15 DAS to harvest under all the nitrogen management treatments. At 15 DAS, plant height varied from 5.03 to 5.76 cm. T 2 (100% RDN through urea application) recorded the highest plant height (5.76 cm), followed by T 4 (5.46 cm), T 7 (5.39 cm), T 3 (5.35 cm), T 6 (5.31 cm), T 5 (5.24 cm), T 8 (5.10 cm), and T 1 (5.03 cm). However, the differences among the treatments were not significant at this stage, indicating that the nitrogen management treatments had not yet produced a significant effect on plant height during the initial growth period. At 30 DAS, plant height showed a significant response to nitrogen management. T 2 (100% RDN through urea application) recorded the highest plant height (16.4 cm), which was followed by T 5 (13.9 cm), T 4 (13.6 cm), T 3 and T 8 (13.3 cm each), T 7 (12.9 cm), and T 6 (12.8 cm). The control treatment, T 1 (no nitrogen), recorded the lowest plant height (10.2 cm). Thus, the application of nitrogen resulted in greater plant height compared with the control, with T 2 recording the highest value at this stage. At 45 DAS, plant height increased considerably across all treatments and ranged from 54.1 to 70.7 cm. T 2 (100% RDN through urea application) continued to record the highest plant height (70.7 cm). Among the organic and integrated nitrogen treatments, T 5 (100% RDN through black soldier fly frass derived from poultry litter) recorded 65.0 cm, followed by T 4 (64.6 cm), T 8 (64.3 cm), T 3 (64.0 cm), T 7 (63.8 cm), and T 6 (61.9 cm). The lowest plant height was recorded in T 1 (54.1 cm). At 60 DAS, application of 50% RDN equivalent through black soldier fly frass derived from poultry litter + 50% RDN through urea recorded the highest plant height (119 cm), followed by T 6 (50% RDN equivalent through aerobically composted poultry manure + 50% RDN through urea) at 115 cm and T 2 (100% RDN through urea application) at 114 cm. The remaining treatments recorded plant heights of 107 cm in T 4 , 102 cm in T 7 , 100 cm in T 5 , and 98 cm in T 8 , while T 1 recorded the lowest value (87 cm). At harvest, plant height ranged from 98 to 149 cm. T 3 (50% RDN equivalent through black soldier fly frass derived from poultry litter + 50% RDN through urea) recorded the highest plant height (149 cm), followed by T 6 (141 cm), T 2 (129 cm), and T 4 (127 cm). Plant height under T 7 , T 5 and T 8 was 117, 115 and 114 cm, respectively, whereas the minimum plant height was recorded in T 1 (98 cm). The results therefore showed a distinct change in treatment response with crop advancement. T 2 (100% RDN through urea application) recorded the highest plant height during the early growth stages up to 45 DAS, whereas T 3 (50% RDN through black soldier fly frass derived from poultry litter + 50% RDN through urea) recorded the highest plant height from 60 DAS and at harvest. The control treatment consistently recorded the lowest plant height throughout the crop growth period.

Effect of black soldier fly frass and urea on number of branches per plant

The effect of different nitrogen management practices involving black soldier fly frass in conjunction with urea on the number of branches per plant is presented in Table 3.2. The number of branches per plant increased progressively with crop age under all treatments. At 15 DAS, the number of branches per plant ranged from 3.09 to 3.50, with the maximum recorded in T 2 (100% RDN through urea application) (3.50) and the minimum in T 5 (100% RDN equivalent through black soldier fly frass derived from poultry litter) (3.09). The treatment differences were non-significant. At 30 DAS, significant differences were observed among treatments. T 2 recorded the maximum number of branches (8.06), followed by T 5 (7.64), T 4 (7.54), T 3 (7.51), T 8 (7.48), T 7 (7.39), and T 6 (7.23), while T 1 (control, no nitrogen) recorded the minimum (5.69). At 45 DAS, the number of branches ranged from 7.80 to 9.60. T 2 recorded the maximum (9.60), followed by T 6 (9.20), T 5 (8.80), T 4 (8.78), T 8 (8.71), T 3 (8.68), and T 7 (8.67), whereas T 1 recorded the minimum (7.80). At 60 DAS, the highest number of branches was recorded in T 3 (50% RDN equivalent through black soldier fly frass derived from poultry litter + 50% RDN through urea) (12.0), followed by T 6 (11.0), T 2 (10.7), T 4 (10.1), T 5 (9.4), T 8 (9.3), T 7 (9.2), and T 1 (8.2). At harvest, T 3 recorded the maximum number of branches per plant (13.2), followed by T 6 (13.0), T 2 (12.8), T 4 (12.4), T 7 (12.3), T 5 (12.2), T 8 (12.0), and T 1 (9.9). Plant height and number of branches per plant showed a clear stagedependent response to nitrogen management. During the early stages, T 2 (100% RDN through urea) recorded the highest values, particularly at 30 and 45 DAS, which may be attributed to the rapid availability of nitrogen from urea during active vegetative growth. From 60 DAS onwards, T 3 (50% RDN equivalent through BSFLF derived from poultry litter + 50% RDN through urea) recorded the highest plant height and number of branches and maintained its superiority up to harvest. At harvest, T 3 recorded 149 cm plant height and 13.2 branches per plant compared with 129 cm and 12.8 branches per plant, respectively, under T 2 . This shift suggests that the integrated application of BSFLF and urea provided a more favourable nutrient supply pattern for sustained vegetative growth. Among the treatments, application of 50% RDN through BSFLF + 50% RDN through urea recorded significantly higher crop growth compared with the other treatments. The combination of BSFLF and recommended dose of fertilizers appeared to provide well-balanced nutrient availability, facilitating improved crop growth (Geethanjali et al., 2025). Moreover, the combined application of organic and inorganic sources could improve nutrient availability by providing both readily available and slowly released nutrient sources for plant growth (Du et al., 2024). The present findings therefore indicate that integrated application of BSFLF and urea was more effective in promoting plant height and branch formation than sole application of BSFLF. The results are broadly consistent with Beesigamukama et al., (2020) [5] , Adekiya et al., (2019) [6] , Liu et al., (2024), Santos et al., (2026) [7] , Kumawat et al. (2014) [8] and Rosmiati et al., (2017) [9] .

Effect of black soldier fly frass and urea on SPAD values for leaf chlorophyll content

SPAD chlorophyll meter readings are an indirect measure of leaf chlorophyll content and photosynthetic efficiency. The data on SPAD chlorophyll meter readings at different crop stages as influenced impact of black soldier fly frass and urea are presented in [10] .

The sustained SPAD values at 45 and 60 DAS (32.8 and 33.1) under T 3 may indicate better synchronization between N release and crop N demand. Integrated application of BSFL frass with mineral fertilizer has been reported to improve nutrient availability and crop N uptake (Anyega et al., 2021) [11] . Since nitrogen is an essential component of chlorophyll and photosynthetic proteins, improved N nutrition can enhance leaf chlorophyll content and SPAD values. Similar improvement in chlorophyll status following BSFL frass application has been reported in maize (Beesigamukama et al., 2020) [5] , while integrated nutrient management with organic and inorganic fertilizers has also enhanced chlorophyll content in mustard (Kumawat et al., 2014) [8] .

Effect of black soldier fly frass and urea on yield attributes, seed and stover yield of mustard

Number of siliquae plant-1

The number of siliqua plant -1 is an important yield attribute that directly contributes to seed yield in mustard. The data pertaining to the number of siliqua plant -1 as influenced by BSFLF and urea are presented in Table 3.4. A critical examination of the data revealed that the treatments significantly influenced the number of siliqua plant -1 . The highest number of siliqua plant -1 (80.0) was recorded with T 3 -50% RDN through BSFLF + 50% RDN through urea, which was significantly superior over all other treatments. It was followed by T 6 (74.0), T 2 (67.8), T 4 (66.2), T 7 (61.0), T 5 (60.8) and T 8 (60.1), whereas the lowest value (50.6) was observed in control.

Number of filled seeds siliqua-1

The number of seeds siliqua -1 is an important component of mustard seed yield, as it determines the seed-bearing capacity of individual siliqua. The data pertaining to the number of seeds siliqua -1 as influenced by BSFLF and urea are presented in Table 3.4. The highest number of seeds siliqua -1 (14.9) was recorded with T 3 -50% RDN through BSFLF + 50% RDN through urea, followed by T 6 (13.1), T 2 (12.6), T 4 (11.3), T 5 (10.9), T 7 (10.6) and T 8 (10.2), while the lowest value (8.8) was recorded in T 1 -control (no nitrogen).

Data pertaining to test weight was presented in Table 3.4. Results revealed that the tested treatments did not show any significant difference in test weight. The test weight ranged from 5.0 to 6.2 g.

Seed yield represents the cumulative effect of crop growth, development of yield attributes, nutrient availability and the efficiency of nutrient utilization by the crop. The data pertaining to seed yield of mustard as influenced by different nitrogen sources are presented in Table 3.4. A critical examination of the data revealed that the treatments significantly influenced seed yield of mustard. The seed yield ranged from 9.4 to 16.5 g pot -1 , with the highest seed yield of 16.5 g pot -1 recorded in T 3 (50% RDN equivalent through BSFLF + 50% RDN through urea). T 3 recorded significantly higher seed yield than all the other treatments. The next highest seed yield was recorded with T 6 (50% RDN equivalent through aerobically composted poultry manure + 50% RDN through urea), which produced 15.7 g pot -1 , followed by T 2 (100% RDN through urea) with 13.2 g pot -1 . T 4 (75% RDN equivalent through BSFLF + 25% RDN through urea) recorded 12.7 g pot -1 , while T 7 (75% RDN equivalent through aerobically composted poultry manure + 25% RDN through urea) recorded 12.4 g pot -1 . The sole application of BSFLF (T 5 ) and aerobically composted poultry manure (T 8 ) resulted in seed yields of 12.1 and 11.8 g pot -1 , respectively. The lowest seed yield of 9.4 g pot -1 was observed in the control (T 1 ). The superiority of T 3 was also evident when compared with the control and the individual nutrient sources. T 3 increased seed yield by 75.5% over the control (T 1 ), indicating a substantial positive response of mustard to nitrogen application. Compared with 100% RDN through urea alone (T 2 ), T 3 recorded a 25.0% higher seed yield. More importantly, compared with 100% RDN through BSFLF alone (T 5 ), the integrated treatment T 3 increased seed yield by 36.4%. Thus, the integration of BSFLF with urea resulted in greater seed yield than the sole application of either nitrogen source. A similar trend was observed with aerobically composted poultry manure. The integrated treatment T 6 (50% RDN equivalent through aerobically composted poultry manure + 50% RDN through urea) recorded 15.4 g pot -1 , which was 30.5% higher than T 8 (100% RDN equivalent through aerobically composted poultry manure). T 6 also produced 27.3% higher seed yield than T 7 , indicating the advantage of combining an equal proportion of poultry manure-derived nitrogen with mineral nitrogen. However, T 3 produced 7.1% higher seed yield than T 6 , suggesting that the BSFLF-urea combination performed comparatively better than the corresponding aerobically composted poultry manure-urea combination. The data further indicated that increasing the proportion of organic nitrogen beyond 50% did not result in a corresponding increase in seed yield. In the case of BSFLF, T 4 (75% BSFLF + 25% urea) produced 12.7 g pot -1 , which was 5.0% higher than sole BSFLF application (T 5 ) but 3.8% lower than sole urea application (T 2 ). Similarly, T 7 (75% poultry manure + 25% urea) recorded 12.4 g pot -1 , which was 5.1% higher than sole poultry manure application (T 8 ) but 6.1% lower than sole urea application (T 2 ). Overall, the results demonstrated that the integrated application of 50% RDN through BSFLF and 50% RDN through urea (T 3 ) was the most effective treatment for enhancing seed yield of mustard under the experimental conditions. The superior seed yield obtained under T 3 appears to have resulted from the complementary contribution of BSFLF and urea to crop N nutrition. In the present study, T 3 not only increased seed yield but also improved the major yield components, particularly siliquae plant -1 , seeds siliqua -1 , and test weight. The concurrent improvement in these components suggests that the treatment supported both reproductive sink formation and subsequent seed filling, providing a stronger basis for the observed increase in final seed yield (Kumar et al., 2022; Brahmbhatt et al., 2024) [13,12] . The response under T 3 can plausibly be related to the contrasting nutrient-release characteristics of the two N sources. The readily available N from urea could have supplied the crop during periods of high immediate demand, while the organic N fraction of BSFLF may have contributed nutrients progressively through microbial mineralization (Dzepe et al., 2022) [14] . This would have reduced the dependence of the crop on a single source of N and potentially maintained N availability over a broader period of crop development. Such a pattern is particularly relevant to the present findings because the improvement in siliquae number, seeds siliqua -1 , and test weight indicates that the benefit of T 3 extended from reproductive development to seed maturation. The processing of BSFLF may have further contributed to this response. Composting and anaerobic digestion can modify the chemical characteristics of frass and influence the conversion and subsequent release of organic nutrients, thereby affecting its agronomic effectiveness (Klammsteiner et al., 2020; Watson et al., 2021) [1,2] . Thus, the performance of T 3 in this study may reflect not simply the combined application of organic and mineral N, but the interaction between the immediately available N supplied by urea and the nutrient-release characteristics of the processed BSFLF. This interpretation is consistent with the simultaneous improvement in yield attributes observed under T 3 and provides a plausible explanation for its superior seed yield. Overall, the findings indicate that the T 3 combination created a more favourable N supply pattern for mustard than either source acting alone. The improved expression of siliquae formation, seed number, and seed weight under this treatment suggests that the combined N sources were effective in supporting the crop through the critical tran-sition from reproductive development to seed filling. Therefore, the higher seed yield under T 3 may be interpreted as the cumulative outcome of improved N nutrition across these developmental stages, rather than merely a response to increased N availability. The findings of the present study are in close agreement with those reported by Beesigamukama et al., (2020) [5] , Chavez et al., (2023), Anyega et al., (2021) [11] , Kidd et al., (2025) [15] , Kullan et al., (2026) [16] , Boudabbous et al., (2023) [17] , Quilliam et al., (2020) [18] , Tanga et al. (2022) [19] and Ramiadantsoa et al., (2026) [20] .

The data on stover yield was presented in Table 3.4 and depicted in Fig. 3.1. The treatments significantly influenced stover yield, which ranged from 26.6 to 34.3 g pot -1 . The highest stover yield of 34.3 g pot -1 was recorded with T 3 (basal application of 50% RDN equivalent BSFLF derived from poultry litter + 50% RDN through urea), followed by T 6 (50% RDN equivalent aerobically composted poultry manure + 50% RDN through urea) with 32.5 g pot -1 . T 2 (100% RDN through urea) recorded a stover yield of 31.4 g pot -1 , followed by T 4 (75% RDN equivalent BSFLF + 25% RDN through urea) with 30.4 g pot -1 . The treatments T 7 , T 5 and T 8 recorded stover yields of 29.8, 29.5 and 29.3 g pot -1 , respectively. The lowest stover yield of 26.6 g pot -1 was recorded in the control (T 1 ). The higher stover yield under T 3 may be attributed to the integrated supply of nutrients from organic and inorganic N sources, which could have promoted better root activity and nutrient uptake. The resulting improvement in nutrient acquisition may have enhanced vegetative growth and dry matter accumulation, leading to greater stover production. Similar improvements in stover yield under integrated nutrient management have been reported by Pal et al., (2018), Rundal et al., (2013) [21] , Bhati et al., (2014) [22] and Lepcha et al., (2015) [23] .

Harvest index is an important indicator of reproductive efficiency and represents the proportion of economic yield relative to total biological yield. The data on harvest index are presented in Table 3 [24] . Improved productivity and nutrient uptake under integrated nutrient management in mustard were also reported by Singh et al. (2011) [25] and Singh et al. (2014) [26] .

Conclusions

Integrated application of 50% RDN equivalent through BSFLF derived from poultry litter + 50% RDN through urea (T 3 ) improved growth, yield attributes and productivity of mustard, recording the highest seed yield and stover yield.

With the present investigation, it could be concluded that integrated application of 50% RDN equivalent through BSFLF derived from poultry litter + 50% RDN through urea was effective in improving growth, yield, nutrient uptake and agronomic nitrogen use efficiency of mustard under the conditions of the present experiment in the Northern Telangana Zone. However, since the study was conducted under pot culture conditions, further field-level validation across seasons and soil types is required before wider recommendation.

Acknowledgement

I sincerely express my gratitude to Professor Jayashankar Telangana Agricultural University, Hyderabad for providing financial support for my research work. I also extend my heartfelt thanks to the Agricultural college, Jagtial for its constant support, facilities and assistance throughout the course of my research work.

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