Integrated nutrient management in rice (Oryza Sativa L.) under Vindhya region

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) ranks among the world's oldest cultivated cereals and remains the principal source of dietary energy for more than half the global population, underpinning food security across Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Belonging to the family Poaceae, the crop is grown on roughly 164 million hectares worldwide and yields over 520 million tonnes annually, with nearly 90 per cent of production concentrated within Asia (FAO, 2025a) [1] . In India, rice is the single most important food crop, occupying about 51.42 million hectares and producing 225.02 million tonnes at a national average productivity of 7.40 t ha -1 (USDA-FAS, 2025) [2] , contributing over 40 per cent of the country's food-grain output and sustaining the livelihoods of more than half its agricultural population. Its scientific and agronomic importance, spanning genetics, physiology and farming-systems research, continues to make it one of the most extensively studied crops in the world. The rice plant is a self-pollinated, semi-aquatic annual grass characterised by a fibrous root system, hollow jointed culms, alternately arranged linear leaves, and a terminal panicle inflorescence bearing spikelets that each produce a single caryopsis, or grain. Its capacity to grow in standing water, made possible by aerenchyma tissue that transports oxygen to submerged roots, distinguishes it from most other cereals and allows its cultivation across flooded lowlands, rainfed uplands and terraced hill ecosystems alike, a versatility that underlies its wide global distribution. Global rice production has expanded steadily since the 1960s, and current cultivated area stands at approximately 164 million hectares with an annual output exceeding 520 million tonnes (FAO, 2025a) [1] . Yield gains have, however, slowed markedly since the early 1990s, as productivity in leading rice-growing countries approaches the ceiling imposed by existing high-yielding varieties under prevailing management. Further increases in production are therefore increasingly dependent on improved nutrient-use efficiency and management rather than expansion of cultivated area, which is itself constrained by competing land uses (Pattanayak et al., 2022) [3] .

India, together with China, accounts for over half of world rice output (Reuters, 2025) [4] and is among the leading global exporters of non-Basmati rice. The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (2025) projected a record national production of 149 million tonnes for 2024-25, supported by a 12.4 per cent increase in Kharif sown area and continued policy measures such as enhanced minimum support prices, reflecting both improved technology adoption and favourable government support to the sector. Madhya Pradesh cultivates rice on about 2.0 to 2.5 million hectares each Kharif season, concentrated in the Vindhya and Satpura agro-climatic zones that include Satna, Rewa, Sidhi, Umaria and neighbouring districts. Despite receiving reasonably favourable monsoon rainfall of 900 to 1100 mm, average state productivity of only 1.5 to 2.0 t ha -1 trails far behind the national average, and productivity within the Vindhya region specifically ranges from only 2.5 to 3.2 t ha -1 (Kumar et al., 2023) [5] , well short of the 5.0 to 7.0 t ha -1 potential of modern high-yielding varieties under optimal management. The region's clay loam to heavy clay soils, derived from the weathering of Vindhyan sandstone and Deccan trap basalt, are characteristically low in organic carbon, available nitrogen and available phosphorus, and this poor inherent fertility constrains productivity independent of variety choice or irrigation availability. Decades of continuous, intensive rice cultivation sustained largely by chemical fertilizers have progressively depleted soil organic carbon and biological activity across India's rice-growing tracts, with organic carbon in many intensively cropped fields of central India falling below 0.5 per cent from historical levels of 0.6 to 0.8 per cent (Didawat et al., 2024) [6] . Because soil organic matter governs nutrient mineralisation, microbial activity and water-holding capacity, its steady decline undermines the long-term productive capacity of rice soils even where recommended doses of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are applied, as reflected in the yield stagnation documented under sole chemical fertilisation in long-term cereal cropping experiments (Mahajan et al., 2002). Sustaining productivity under such conditions therefore requires nutrient management strategies that extend beyond fertiliser dose alone to actively rebuild soil organic matter and biological function. Fertiliser use in Indian rice cultivation remains heavily skewed toward nitrogen, with an average N:P 2 O 5 :K 2 O application ratio of roughly 8:3:1 against the recommended balanced ratio of 4:2:1 (Sahu et al., 2020) [7] . This imbalance depresses nitrogen-use efficiency to only 30 to 40 per cent, with the remainder lost through ammonia volatilisation, denitrification and leaching, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions, groundwater nitrate contamination and eutrophication of surface water bodies. Continued reliance on chemical fertilisers alone, without organic replenishment, further degrades soil structure and biological health, compounding the yield-limiting effects of nutrient imbalance and raising the cost of production for farmers.

Materials and Methods

The field experiment entitled "Integrated Nutrient Management in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) under Vindhya Region" was conducted during the Kharif season of 2025-26 at the Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, AKS University, Satna (M.P.). The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) with three replications and twelve treatments, comprising a total of 36 experimental plots. The crop used was hybrid Badrinath, transplanted at a spacing of 30 × 10 cm with a seed rate of 15 kg ha -1

. The gross plot size was 5.0 × 3.0 m (15.0 m 2

) and the net plot size was 4.60 × 2.40 m (11.04 m 2 ), with a total gross experimental area of 801 m 2 . The recommended dose of fertilizer was 120:60:40 kg N 2 O 52 O ha -1

. The treatments consisted of different combinations of RDF, FYM, vermicompost, NADEP compost, Jivamrit and biofertilizers (Azospirillum + PSB). Nursery raising was done on 03 July 2025, followed by land preparation, puddling, levelling and field layout. Soil sampling was carried out on 23 July 2025, and transplanting along with treatment application was completed on 24 July 2025. Nitrogen top dressing was car-ried out on 23 August and 23 September 2025, with Jivamrit application during the first top dressing. Necessary intercultural, irrigation and plant protection measures were followed uniformly in all treatments. The crop was harvested on 05 November 2025, followed by threshing on 24 November 2025 and winnowing and sun drying from 04 to 10 December 2025. All agronomic and cultural operations were performed uniformly according to the recommended package of practices for rice cultivation.

Results and Discussion

Effect of integrated nutrient management on growth of rice

Integrated nutrient management significantly influenced the growth of rice, while plant population at 30 DAT remained statistically at par among the treatments, ranging from 32.33 to 33.67 plants m -2 . Treatment T 11 (100% Organic: FYM @ 5 t ha -1 + Vermicompost @ 2 t ha⁻¹ + NADEP @ 5 t ha⁻¹ + Jivamrit + Biofertilizers) recorded the highest plant height of 54.34, 103. 22 at the corresponding stages. The superior growth under T 11 may be attributed to the complementary supply of nutrients from FYM, vermicompost and NADEP compost along with microbial activity promoted by Jivamrit and biofertilizers, which collectively improved nutrient availability, root development and photosynthetic activity. Similar improvement in rice growth under integrated nutrient management has been reported by Sarkar et al. (2016) [8] and Senthilvalavan et al. (2019) [9] .

Effect of integrated nutrient management on yield of rice

Yield and yield attributes of rice were favourably influenced by integrated nutrient management. Treatment T 11 recorded the highest number of productive panicles (12.26 plant -1 ), panicle length (25.19 cm), filled grains (153.74 panicle -1

), test weight (24.94 g) and the lowest chaffy grains (8. 21 panicle -1 ). The highest grain yield of 7337 kg ha -1 and straw yield of 8850.41 kg ha -1 were also obtained under T 11 , compared with 6023 kg ha -1 grain yield and 6455.91 kg ha -1 straw yield under 100% RDF (T 2 ), while the control T 1 produced only 4936 kg ha -1 grain yield. Thus, T 11 increased grain yield by approximately 21.8% over T 2 . The improved yield under T 11 was associated with greater vegetative growth, tillering, panicle development and grain filling resulting from sustained nutrient availability throughout the crop growth period. The findings are in agreement with Chongtham et al. (2016), who reported improved panicle development and yield of hybrid rice with integrated application of inorganic fertilizers and organic manures, and Urmi et al. (2022) [10] , who observed enhanced rice productivity under integrated combinations of organic manures and mineral fertilizers.

Effect of integrated nutrient management on quality of rice

The quality characteristics of rice grain were also improved under integrated nutrient management. Grain protein content was highest under T 11 (8.47%), followed by T 12 (8.12%) and T 2 (8.08%), whereas the control T 1 recorded the lowest protein content of 6.72%. Similarly, carbohydrate content ranged from 74.57% in T 1 to 76.47% in T 11 . The higher protein content under T₁₁ may be attributed to improved and sustained nitrogen availability from the combined application of organic and biological nutrient sources, which enhanced nitrogen uptake and its subsequent translocation to the developing grains. The comparatively smaller variation in carbohydrate content may be related to the relatively stable carbon assimilation and starch accumulation processes among treatments. Similar improvements in rice grain protein through integrated application of organic manures, inorganic fertilizers and biofertilizers have been reported by Sharma et al. (2015) [11] and Kumawat et al. (2023) [12] .

Effect of integrated nutrient management on economics of rice

Integrated nutrient management considerably affected the economic returns of rice cultivation. The cost of cultivation ranged from ₹32,000 ha -1 in T 1 to ₹49,000 ha -1 in T 2 , whereas T 11 recorded a cost of ₹43,800 ha -1 . The highest gross return (₹190,120 ha -1 ), net return (₹146,320 ha -1

) and benefit-cost ratio (4.34) were obtained under T 11 , while the lowest net return (₹81,760 ha -1

) and B ratio (2.86) were recorded under T 10 . The superior economic performance of T 11 was mainly due to its higher grain and straw yields combined with a comparatively moderate cost of cultivation. The results indicate that integration of organic manures, Jivamrit and biofertilizers with nutrient management can improve both productivity and profitability of rice. Similar economic benefits from integrated nutrient management involving organic manures and reduced inorganic fertilizer application have been reported by Thakur et al. (2023) [13] and Patra et al. (2024) [14] .

Conclusion

The present investigation demonstrated that integrated nutrient management significantly improved the growth, yield, quality and economics of Kharif rice (Oryza sativa L.) cv. Hybrid-Badrinath under the soil and climatic conditions of the Vindhya region. Among the twelve treatments, T 11 (FYM @ 5 t ha -1 + vermicompost @ 2 t ha -1 + NADEP compost @ 5 t ha -1 + Jivamrit + biofertilisers comprising Azospirillum and phosphate-solubilising bacteria) performed best for most growth, yield and quality parameters. It recorded the highest grain yield (7337 kg ha -1

), straw yield (8850.41 kg ha -1 ), grain protein and carbohydrate content, along with the highest net return (₹146,320 ha -1

) and benefit-cost ratio (4.34). Based on these findings, T 11 can be recommended as the most productive, economically viable and sustainable nutrient management practice for Kharif rice cultivation under conditions similar to those of the present investigation.

References

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