Adaptive strategies for flood risk management in the Tarai plains of Uttar Pradesh

Introduction

Floods are among the most important natural hazards affecting agricultural production. The Tarai regions of Uttar Pradesh are particularly susceptible to flood-related agricultural damage because of their location near the Himalayan foothills, river systems and recurrent waterlogging. The vulnerability of agricultural production to climatic variability and extreme weather events, including floods, has been recognized in India's climate-resilient agriculture initiatives (Chaudhari, 2023) [1] . The present study focuses on six flood-prone districts of the Tarai plains of Uttar Pradesh: Bahraich, Basti, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Kushinagar and Maharajganj. Floods affect agricultural production through crop submergence, soil erosion, sediment deposition, delayed sowing and disruption of farm operations. Prolonged waterlogging can also interfere with the establishment of subsequent crops, particularly in rice-based cropping systems. These impacts may reduce farm income and increase the vulnerability of small and marginal farmers. Recent research on district-level flood severity in India has emphasized the importance of spatially targeted flood-risk assessment and management (Saharia et al., 2024) [15] .

The National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), implemented by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), was launched in February 2011 to enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture to climate variability and change. The project combines strategic research, technology demonstration and capacity building to address climate-related risks in agriculture. In Uttar Pradesh, NICRA activities have included the demonstration of improved crop varieties, resourceconserving technologies, farm machinery and location-specific adaptation measures through Krishi Vigyan Kendras (ICAR, 2023) [5] . Although climate-resilient interventions have been promoted in vulnerable agricultural regions, their performance under farmers' field conditions requires systematic documentation. A comparison of agricultural machinery, cropbased adaptation and allied-sector interventions can provide evidence on their contribution to agricultural productivity and farm income. Therefore, the present study examines the reported performance of adaptive agricultural interventions in six floodprone districts of the Tarai plains of Uttar Pradesh.

Objectives

 To find the major agricultural adaptation strategies demonstrated in flood-prone districts of the Tarai plains.  To compare crop productivity and farmers' net returns under conventional and adaptive agricultural practices.  To find out the agricultural interventions that contribute to strengthening agricultural resilience and improving the economic sustainability of farming systems in the study region.

Materials and Methods

Study area

The study was conducted in six flood-prone districts of Uttar Pradesh: Bahraich, Basti, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Kushinagar and Maharajganj. These districts fall within the Tarai plains, where agriculture is frequently affected by excessive rainfall, river flooding, waterlogging and delayed crop establishment. The districts were selected based on their inclusion in the project material and their reported vulnerability to flood-related agricultural losses.

Data sources and study design

The present study is based on secondary data extracted from NICRA project records.

Variables and economic indicators

The main outcome variables were crop productivity and net return. Productivity and net return were reported using the units available in the project records, including q ha -1 , g ha -1 and kg unit -1 where applicable. Percentage increases in production and net return were retained as reported.

The relative increase was calculated as:

Where  Yᵢ = Yield/productivity or net return under the intervention/adaptive practice.  Yc = Yield/productivity or net return under the comparison/conventional practice.

Increase (%) = Percentage increase in yield/productivity or net return over the comparison practice.

Data analysis

The analysis was descriptive. It involved compilation of reported productivity, percentage change in production and percentage change in net returns. The data were presented through comparative tables and narrative synthesis. No inferential statistical tests were performed because the available project records do not contain complete replicated observations, sample sizes or variance estimates. ). In contrast, Kushinagar recorded the lowest cropped area in the very low, low and moderate zones, with no reported area in the high and very high zones.

Results and Discussion

Machinery interventions

Laser-guided land levelling: Laser-guided land levelling was demonstrated in Gonda district on 50 ha of sandy loam soil. The project records reported a 10-15% reduction in soil erosion, a 20% increase in paddy yield (NDR-359), and a 45% increase in farmers' net return (Table 1).  The reduction in erosion may be attributed to improved field uniformity, which minimizes concentrated surface runoff and soil movement during heavy rainfall. Precision levelling also promotes more uniform water distribution and reduces localized water accumulation, making it particularly relevant to flood-prone Tarai conditions (Tohidyan Far and Rezaei-Moghaddam, 2020; Devkota et al., 2021) [3] . Thus, laser-guided levelling can contribute simultaneously to soil conservation, improved crop productivity and farm profitability [19] .  Drum seeder technology: Drum seeder technology was demonstrated in Kushinagar district for direct-seeded rice (S-52). Project records reported a 17.55% increase in productivity and a 64.11% increase in net return. The reported gains may be associated with timely crop establishment, reduced labour requirements and lower establishment costs. Field studies have reported higher yield and net returns with drum seeding compared with conventional establishment, largely because of reduced labour and cultivation costs (Table 1). ). Thus, drum seeder technology can contribute to timely establishment, labour saving and improved economic returns as an adaptation option in the Tarai region [11,12] .

Zero tillage in wheat

Zero tillage was demonstrated in Kushinagar and Gonda districts. In Kushinagar, wheat variety DBW-252 recorded a 19.24% increase in production and 47.99% increase in net return, while in Gonda, production and net return increased by 14.70% and 28.27%, respectively (Table 1). The reported gains may be associated with timely sowing, reduced tillage operations and lower machinery and fuel requirements. Similar farmer-field research in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains has reported higher wheat productivity and economic benefits under zero tillage. Zero tillage can also reduce the time required for crop establishment, allowing wheat to be sown earlier and reducing the risk of terminal heat stress. It may additionally improve water and energy-use efficiency by reducing intensive soil disturbance (Keil et al., 2015; Kumar et al., 2019a). Thus, zero tillage can support timely wheat establishment, lower production costs and improved profitability in the Tarai region [6,8,10] .

Super seeder in wheat

The use of a super seeder was demonstrated in Basti and Gorakhpur districts for wheat variety DBW-187. Basti recorded 23.20% higher production and 46.54% higher net return, while Gorakhpur recorded increases of 13.23% and 56.54%, respectively (Table 1). The reported improvement may be associated with timely wheat establishment and simultaneous incorporation of rice residues, reducing the need for separate residue-management and land-preparation operations. Previous studies have reported that residue-management machinery can support timely wheat establishment and improve resource-use efficiency.

Super seeder technology is particularly relevant in rice-wheat systems where short turnaround time after rice harvest and heavy crop-residue loads can delay wheat sowing. By enabling sowing with residue management in a single operation, it can reduce field-preparation time and support timely wheat establishment (Sidhu et al., 2007) [17] . Thus, the technology can contribute to timely sowing, residue management and improved economic returns in the Tarai region.

Climate-resilient crop varieties Flood-tolerant rice varieties

The use of flood-tolerant rice varieties was reported in Gonda and Bahraich districts. In Gonda, Samba-Sub1 recorded a 27.85% increase in production and 52.85% increase in net return, while in Bahraich, Swarna-Sub1 grown on 10 ha showed a 43.78% increase in yield under 15 days of stagnant water at 60-105 cm depth (Table 2). These reported results are consistent

with the documented role of SUB1 varieties in improving rice performance under temporary submergence. The improved performance is associated with the SUB1 gene, which enhances tolerance to complete submergence by restricting excessive elongation and conserving plant energy during flooding. Studies in eastern India have reported higher yield and economic returns from Swarna-Sub1 and Samba-Sub1 under submergence-prone conditions (Ravindra et al., 2020; Dar et al., 2013). Field studies have also confirmed the improved performance of SUB1 varieties under flood conditions (Sarangi et al., 2020) [2,14,16] .

Short-duration or medium-duration varieties

In Kushinagar, green gram variety Virat recorded a 51.24% increase in production and 42.50% increase in net return, while in Bahraich, rice variety NDR-2065 showed 23.48% higher production and 17.64% higher net return (Table 2). The reported performance of suitable varieties may improve productivity and profitability under variable weather conditions. Virat has also been evaluated under rainfed conditions, demonstrating its suitability as a green gram cultivar under such environments. Selection of appropriate crop duration is particularly important in flood-prone areas because shorter-duration crops can provide greater flexibility for completing the crop cycle within a limited favourable period. In flood-prone eastern Uttar Pradesh, appropriate crop and variety selection has also been associated with improved productivity and profitability (Singh et al., 2001). Thus, selection of suitable varieties and crop duration can reduce production risk and improve economic resilience in the Tarai region [18] .

Introduction of fodder crops

In Kushinagar, Jowar variety Anant was introduced as a catch crop and the project records reported 908.33 q ha -1 fodder production, with net returns of ₹26,691 for farmers with buffaloes and ₹19,027 for farmers with cows (Table 2). The difference in reported returns indicates that the economic benefit of fodder production may vary with livestock type and fodder utilization. Fodder sorghum can increase on-farm green fodder availability and may provide an additional source of income through livestock-based farming systems.

Compensatory crop introduction

In Gonda district, the introduction of toria as a compensatory crop was associated with a reported 29.44% increase in production and a 47.99% increase in net return. Compensatory crops can reduce the risk of leaving fields fallow following flood-related damage and may improve income stability by providing an alternative crop in the same agricultural season (Table 2). Toria is a short-duration oilseed crop that can be used to utilize land when the sowing window for the main crop is shortened or delayed. Its inclusion as a compensatory crop can help reduce the possibility of leaving land fallow after flood-related crop damage and provide an additional source of farm income. Ricefallow studies in eastern India have highlighted the potential of short-duration oilseed crops for improving land-use efficiency and farm returns (Kumar et al., 2019). Therefore, toria can serve as a risk-management and income-diversification option in flood-prone areas of the Tarai region [8,10] .

Agronomic adaptation strategies Intercropping

Project records indicate that Kushinagar district adopted trenchmethod intercropping of sugarcane with onion. Sugarcane productivity was 642 q ha -1 without intercropping, while the intercropped system produced 117.67 q ha -1 of onion and 726 q ha -1 of sugarcane. Net return increased by 11.26%. The intercropping system therefore had a higher combined reported crop output than sole sugarcane and generated an additional marketable crop (Table 3).

The higher reported productivity and net return under sugarcaneonion intercropping may be associated with better utilization of available land and other resources and the additional marketable yield of onion. Studies in India have reported improved productivity and economic returns from sugarcane-onion intercropping compared with sole sugarcane (Kumar et al., 2014). Thus, trench-method sugarcane-onion intercropping can be considered a diversification option for flood-prone Tarai farming systems [9] .

Table 3: Reported performance of sugarcane-based intercropping in Kushinagar

Cropping system Sugarcane (q ha -1 ) Onion (q ha -1 ) Total reported crop output (q ha -1 ) Sugarcane alone 642 0 642 Sugarcane + onion 726 117.67 843.67

Green manuring

Project records indicate that Maharajganj district adopted green manuring followed by paddy cultivation of variety PBT-5204.

The available records indicate increased production and net return, but exact numerical values were not available in the records used for this analysis. Green manuring may improve soil structure, nutrient cycling and soil-water relations, which are relevant to flood-prone soils.

Green manuring can improve soil fertility by adding organic matter and enhancing nutrient cycling. Incorporation of green manure may also improve soil structure, water-holding capacity and nutrient availability, which can support crop growth under variable moisture conditions. Such improvements are relevant to flood-prone Tarai soils, where maintaining soil quality and efficient nutrient cycling is important after periods of excess water. Green manuring can therefore contribute to soil-quality improvement and greater resilience of rice-based production systems (Prasad et al., 2017) [13] .

Mulching

In Gonda district, project records associated the use of mulch in sugarcane with increases of 8.90% in production and 13.66% in net return. Mulching can help maintain soil moisture, reduce weed competition and improve soil conditions. The improvement may be attributed to better soil-moisture cons ervation, reduced weed competition and improved soil conditions under mulching. Crop residues or other mulch materials can reduce evaporation and moderate soil temperature, thereby supporting crop growth during periods of moisture stress. Mulching can also suppress weeds and improve resourceuse efficiency, contributing to higher productivity and economic returns (Kumar et al., 2020). Therefore, mulching can serve as a low-cost soil and moisture conservation practice for improving the resilience of sugarcane production in the Tarai region [11] .

Agriculture and allied sectors Vermicomposting

In Gonda district, project records reported vermicomposting productivity of 6.70 kg unit -1 and a net return of ₹3,925 unit -1 (Table 4). The reported economic return indicates that vermicomposting may provide an opportunity for diversification of agricultural livelihoods and recycling of farm residues. Vermicomposting converts biodegradable farm residues into nutrient-rich organic manure, thereby supporting waste recycling and diversification of farm-based livelihoods. It can reduce dependence on external inputs and provide an additional source of income, particularly for smallholder farmers. Studies have reported positive economic returns from vermicompost production and its use in crop production (Kumar et al., 2018). Therefore, vermicomposting can contribute to resource recycling, income diversification and livelihood resilience in the Tarai region [7] .

Household kitchen gardens

In Kushinagar, project records reported that kitchen gardening provided an earning of ₹3,436 ha -1 , with productivity of 286 g ha -1 over a total area of 12 ha (Table 4). Because this productivity unit is unusually low for a kitchen-garden production measure, it should be verified against the original project record before final publication. Kitchen gardens can improve livelihood resilience and household food security by providing fresh vegetables for consumption and surplus produce for sale. They also diversify household production and can generate supplementary income with relatively small land requirements. Thus, kitchen gardening can be a useful low-cost livelihood diversification strategy for farm households in flood-prone areas (Galhena et al., 2013) [4] .

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