Spatio-temporal dynamics of vegetable cultivation in Baruipur subdivision, South 24 Parganas, West Bengal

Introduction

Vegetable cultivation is a crucial component of the global agricultural system, contributing significantly to food security, nutritional improvement, and economic development (Ebert, 2020) [1] . In recent decades, global demand for vegetables has increased rapidly due to population growth, urbanization, and changing dietary preferences toward nutrient-rich foods (Pandey et al., 2020) [2] . As a result, vegetable production has expanded across many parts of the world, particularly in developing countries (Dias, 2011) [3] . However, this expansion has not been uniform and has varied considerably over time. These differences arise from variations in agro-climatic conditions, technology adoption, irrigation infrastructure, and market accessibility (Aynalem et al., 2026) [4] . As a result, spatio-temporal variation is important for understanding how vegetable cultivation patterns change across time and space. In agriculture, spatio-temporal variation describes dynamic shifts in crop yield, area, distribution, and intensity over time and geographical space (Kallega et al., 2015) [5,6] . Globally, climate variability, land-use changes, and economic globalization increasingly influence agricultural systems, shaping patterns of cropped area, production, and productivity over time (Hazell & Wood, 2007) [3,7] . Several Studies emphasize that analyzing these spatio-temporal dynamics helps identify regional disparities in cultivated area, production growth patterns, and the drivers of agricultural change, providing a scientific basis for effective planning and policy formulation (Sharma et al., 2023; Wilken et al., 2017) [8,9] . India is among the world's leading vegetable producers, supported by diverse agro-climatic zones and rising domestic demand. Over the years, vegetable crop area, production, and productivity have increased substantially. However, this growth varies significantly by region and time. (Kumari et al., 2025) [10] . Differences in irrigation facilities, technology adoption, infrastructure, and institutional support contribute to uneven development across states (Deshingkar et al., 2003) [11] . West Bengal is one of India's major vegetable-producing states, ranked second after Uttar Pradesh, owing to its fertile alluvial soil, favorable climatic conditions, and intensive cultivation practices (Deka et al., 2020; Kumari et al., 2025) [12,10] . The state has experienced sig nificant growth in vegetable production, but noticeable spatial and temporal disparities persist across districts. Variations in productivity and cropping patterns are influenced by factors such as irrigation availability, climatic variability, landholding structure, and access to markets (Abdeen et al., 2025) [13] . Studies in eastern India further show that although vegetable production has increased, instability and variability persist over time, affecting farmers' income and regional agricultural sustainability (Gupta et al., 2025) [14] . Peri-urban regions show distinct patterns of vegetable cultivation because of their proximity to metropolitan markets (Hussain et al., 2014) [15] . In this context, the Baruipur subdivision of South 24 Parganas district, located in the peri-urban fringe of Kolkata, represents a significant case for analyzing spatio-temporal variation; it has undergone rapid transformation in land use and agricultural practices due to urban expansion, improved connectivity, and increasing market demand (Sarkar et al., 2025; Sinha et al., 2026) [16,17] . Most existing studies concentrate on broad, large-scale trends in vegetable production, area, and productivity, with relatively little emphasis on detailed, block-level spatio-temporal analysis. This study aims to analyze spatio-temporal variation in the area under vegetable cultivation in the Baruipur subdivision of South 24 Parganas district, West Bengal.

Study area

Baruipur subdivision is located in South 24 Parganas district, West Bengal. It has seven community development blocks, namely, Baruipur, Bhangore-I, Bhangore-II, Jaynagar-I, Jaynagar-II, Kultali, and Sonarpur. It includes three municipalities: Rajpur Sonarpur, Baruipur, Jaynagar Majilpur, and 482 inhabited villages. It covers a geographical area of 1,355 square kilometers. As per the 2011 Census, Baruipur Subdivision had a population of 23,96,646, of whom 12,22,161 were males and 11,74,485 were females, resulting in a sex ratio of 960 females per 1,000 males. The urban population constituted about 31.05%, while the rural population accounted for 68.95%. The total net sown area is 86552 hectares, and 43% of the population are agricultural workers. Baruipur Subdivision, located in the peri-urban area of Kolkata, is important for vegetable cultivation because of its proximity to the city. A substantial population (43%) in the Baruipur subdivision is engaged in agriculture, with a significant portion involved in vegetable cultivation, which contributes significantly to the livelihoods of small and marginal farmers. The total area under vegetable cultivation covers 84107 hectares in South 24 Parganas, of which Baruipur subdivision comprises 34784 hectares, accounting for more than 41% of the district's total area. The region has a large proportion of farmers with small landholdings who rely heavily on vegetable cultivation as their primary income source.

Figure 1. Location map of the Study area

Methodology

The present study uses secondary data to analyze spatiotemporal variation in the area under vegetable cultivation in the Baruipur subdivision of South 24 Parganas. Block-level data on the area under vegetable cultivation (in hectares) were obtained from the Agriculture Census for four time periods: 2000-01, 2005-06, 2010-11, and 2015-16. For analysis, we converted the area under each vegetable crop into a percentage of the total cultivated area under vegetables. We used the mean and standard deviation to classify the data and ensure a balanced representation of variation. In this method, values below (Mean -½ SD) were categorized as low, values between (Mean -½ SD) and (Mean + ½ SD) as medium, and values above (Mean + ½ SD) as high. All the vegetables were classified into five major groups based on their edible parts (Patel & Kumar, 2025; Pennington & Fisher, 2009; S. Dhaliwal, 2017) [18,19] . This classification enabled the examination of changes in the composition and dominance of different vegetable types over time. The authors used tables and diagrams to present temporal trends, while maps (prepared using ArcGIS software) depicted the spatial distribution and variation in the area under vegetable cultivation across blocks.

Key variables and methods

This study estimates panel-data econometric models to identify and analyze the factors influencing vegetable cultivation in the study area. First, the scholars categorized all vegetables into five categories. Accordingly, the authors prepared five separate models to identify the factors driving vegetable cultivation using panel datasets. We considered two panel datasets, i.e., 2000-01 and 2015-15, due to constraints in data availability. We used corresponding socio-economic and demographic data published every decade by the Census of India. The determinants of vegetable cultivation were examined using the following equation: [2,18,19]

Where Yi refers to the individual vegetable category, β 0 is the Y-intercept, 𝛽 1 𝑡𝑜 𝛽 6 = coefficients of estimated, X 1i is literacy rate, X 2i is irrigated area, X 3i is Net Sown Area (NSA), X 4i is the number of marginal farmers, X 5i is the number of small farmers, X 6i is growth of urban population, 𝜺i = error term To identify the most robust specification, we estimated three panel regression models: pooled OLS, fixed effects, and random effects. The fixed effects and random effects models did not produce statistically significant coefficients; the F-statistics were not significant in either model, so the pooled regression model was adopted as the preferred model for subsequent analysis.

Description of variables

Results and Discussions

The observed spatio-temporal variation in the area under vegetable cultivation across the Baruipur subdivision can be explained by a combination of economic, environmental, and infrastructural factors.

Root vegetables:

The maps show distinct spatio-temporal changes in the area under root vegetable cultivation in Baruipur Subdivision between 2000-01 and 2015-16, driven by environmental suitability, market forces, and urban expansion. In 2000-01, Baruipur and Bhangore-2 had the highest share (> 44%), while Bhangore- . Root vegetables grow underground and are therefore highly sensitive to excess water and poor drainage; heavy rainfall and frequent flooding create waterlogged soil, which leads to root rot and the spread of fungal diseases. Controlling these diseases often requires pesticides, but the high cost of these inputs makes them unaffordable for many small vegetable farmers. As a result, farmers face significant risks of total crop loss, which discourages them from continuing root vegetable cultivation. Consequently, they tend to shift toward crops that are more moisture-tolerant and less vulnerable to such environmental stresses (Pathak et al., 2021) [22] . The declining class intervals over time further indicate a reduced relative importance of root vegetables in the cropping system, as farmers increasingly shifted toward high-value vegetables. This pattern is consistent with studies in other parts of India, where researchers have observed crop diversification, a declining share of traditional crops, and spatial relocation of cultivation in response to market demand, improved connectivity, and periurbanization (Birthal et al., 2005; Pingali, 2007) [23,3,24] . Leafy vegetables: In 2000-01, the highest share of leafy vegetables (> 10.09%) was concentrated in Jaynagar-2, while most northern and central blocks such as Bhangore-1, Bhangore-2, and Baruipur recorded moderate shares (3.12-10.09%), and Sonarpur and Jaynagar-1 remained in the low category (< 3.12%). By 2005-06, Jaynagar-2 concentration increased further (> 20.7%), while Baruipur and Bhangore remained in the medium category (11.01-20.7%), and Kultali and other southern parts remained in the low category (< 11.01%). Sonarpur and Jaynagar-1 showed no leafy vegetable cultivation. In 2010-11, a significant shift occurred as northern blocks like Sonarpur and Bhangore-2 recorded the highest shares (> 7.61%), while central areas remained moderate (3.59-7.61%) and southern blocks such as Jaynagar-1 and Jaynagar-2 dropped to low shares (< 3.59%), and Kultali showed no cultivation. By 2015-16, Bhangore-2 showed a high share (> 10.63%), most blocks fell into the medium category (7.2-10.63%), and Jaynagar-1 and Jaynagar-2 remained in the low category (< 7.2%). Blank areas in some periods reflect localized cultivation gaps due to environmental constraints or farmers' deliberate shift toward more lucrative vegetable categories. Overall, the percentage share indicates that leafy vegetable cultivation experienced both spatial fluctuation and moderate growth, with a shift from southern dominance (2000-01). (2000-01 to 2015-16) Fruit and Flower vegetables: Figure 4 shows a clear pattern of expansion, diffusion, and eventual dominance across most blocks in the study area. In 2000-01, Jaynagar-1 and Jaynagar-2 had high concentrations (> 50.55%), while Bhangore-1 and 2 recorded moderate concentrations (28.33-50.55%), and Kultali remained in the low category (< 28.33%). In 2005-06, Kultali emerged as a high-concentration zone (> 54.51%), while most other blocks moved into the medium category (31.7-54.51%), and Bhangore-1 and II recorded relatively lower shares (< 31.87%). In 2010-11, the percentage share further increased, with Bhangore-1 and Jaynagar-1 recording very high shares (> 60.05%), while most other blocks such as Sonarpur, Baruipur, and Kultali fell within the medium range (46.87-60.05%), indicating widespread adoption across the subdivision. However, by 2015-16, the pattern became more stable, with Bhangore-1 remaining the high concentration zone (> 58.47%), while most other blocks maintained moderate shares (49.58-58.47%), and Kultali and parts of Jaynagar-2 recorded relatively lower shares (< 49.95%). The increasing percentage share indicates that fruit and flower vegetables have become the dominant component of the vegetable cropping system in the study area. This can be explained by high market demand, better price realization, shorter cropping cycles, and suitability for peri-urban agriculture, especially near Kolkata. Farmers are likely shifting towards these crops because of higher profitability and improved transport and market linkages (Joshi et al., 2006; Mariyono, 2018) [25,26] . The growing dominance of fruit and flower vegetables across most blocks aligns with the theory of agricultural commercialization and crop diversification, which posits that farmers gradually shift from low-value subsistence crops to high-value, market-oriented crops. Several studies in India show that rising urban demand, better price realization, and improved transport connectivity encourage farmers to allocate more land to perishable but profitable vegetables such as tomato, brinjal, and cauliflower (Birthal et al., 2005; Pingali, 2007) [23,24] . Seed and Pod vegetables: In 2000-01, the highest share (> 9.14%) was observed only in Jaynagar-1, while Bhangore-1 recorded moderate values (1.49-9.14%), and Baruipur remained in the low category (< 1.49%); several blocks such as Sonarpur, Jaynagar-2, Kultali, and Bhangore-2 showed blank (NA) areas, indicating absence of cultivation, likely due to limited preference for these crops and unsuitable agro-climatic conditions. In 2005-06, the overall percentage share decreased drastically, with Jaynagar-2 block emerging as the zone with the highest share. Most other blocks recorded very low or negligible shares (< 0.11% or 0.11-0.73%), and Sonarpur and Jaynagar-1 showed no cultivation, reflecting the reduced importance of this category. In the year 2010-11, a temporary shift occurred, with northern blocks such as Bhangore-1, Bhangore-2, and Sonarpur recording higher shares (> 1.24%), while southern blocks, including Jaynagar-1, Jaynagar-2, and Baruipur, remained in the low category (< 0.57%). However, by 2015-16, the pattern became localized again, with Jaynagar-1 emerging as the only high-concentration zone (> 1.98%), while Baruipur, Bhangore-1, and Kultali recorded moderate shares (0.5-1.98%). Most other blocks showed low values (< 0.5%) or absence (NA), particularly in Sonarpur. The percentage share of seed and pod vegetables remains very low and inconsistent over time, especially when compared to other vegetable categories, suggesting that seed and pod vegetables are a minor and unstable component of the cropping system in the study area. This pattern is consistent with broader findings in India, where studies highlight a shift away from less profitable or less demanded crops toward high-value horticultural crops driven by urban markets, better price realization, and commercialization of agriculture (Birthal et al., 2005; Joshi et al., 2006; Orsini et al., 2013; Pingali, 2007) [23,25,27,24] . etables also show notable negative growth in certain phases. For instance, Bhagore-1 shows declines of -53.11% and -25.72% in successive periods, while Jaynagar-2 records declines of -95.64% and -44.12% in the initial periods. Sonarpur also experienced a -100% decline in the early period (2000-01 to 2005-06). These fluctuations indicate that leafy vegetable cultivation is highly unstable and varies over time. Fruit and flower vegetables, although generally showing high overall growth, also experienced notable declines in several blocks. Bhagore-1 recorded a -45.83% decline, Jaynagar-1 recorded a -74.51% decline, Jaynagar-2 recorded a -98.46% decline, and Kultali experienced a sharp fall of -97.02% during 2005-06 to 2010-11. This indicates that, despite long-term expansion, short-term declines are quite pronounced. Seed and pod vegetables also demonstrate negative growth rates. Bhagore-1 shows -78.95% and -98.17%; Jaynagar-1 records -100% in the initial period; Jaynagar-2 shows -50%; and Sonarpur also experienced a -100% decline during 2010- [4] of 0.57. This means that people are more health-conscious. As a result, they consume less at the individual level. Because root vegetables have various negative effects on health, such as increased glucose levels, lipid profiles, and blood pressure (Knez et al., 2022) [6] . In model 2, leafy vegetable cultivation is positively associated with the literacy rate. Leafy vegetable cultivation increases by 1.14 units for a one-unit increase in literacy rate. It is statistically significant at the 1% level. Literate farmers are aware of market demand and have more knowledge regarding crop cultivation. Leafy vegetables are an important source of vitamins C and E and carotenoids, which support metabolism (M. Knez et al., 2024; Nurzyńska-Wierdak, 2025; Thakur et al., 2022). As a result, farmers cultivate more high-value crops. The study also shows a positive association between leafy vegetables and irrigated area, with leafy vegetables increasing by 0.0027 units per 1unit increase in irrigated area. It is statistically significant at the 1% level. The model is also significant at the 1% level. The remaining three models are not statistically significant. The study findings carry practical relevance for regional agricultural planning. Identifying the specific blocks where root vegetable cultivation is declining, and where fruit and flower vegetables are expanding, gives policymakers and extension agencies a spatial basis for targeted interventions -whether in irrigation infrastructure, drainage management, or market-linkage support by the policymaker. The unavailability of recent data constrains the study, as the latest Agricultural Census data is available only up to 2015-16 and may not reflect current trends. Production data for different vegetable categories were not available. Not all variables have consistent time-series data, limiting detailed comparisons across years.

Conclusion

The study shows that vegetable cultivation in the Baruipur subdivision has changed notably over time. There has been a clear transition from subsistence-based farming to more commercially oriented agriculture, with fruit and flower vegetables emerging as the dominant category across most blocks. The region's proximity to Kolkata mainly drives this shift through better market connectivity, higher profitability, and evolving consumer preferences. Meanwhile, root vegetables have become less important. Root vegetables are highly sensitive to excess water and poor drainage. Heavy rainfall and flooding cause waterlogging, leading to root rot and fungal diseases. High pesticide costs make disease management difficult for small farmers. As a result, repeated crop losses discourage root vegetable cultivation, leading farmers to shift toward more moisture-tolerant crops. Leafy vegetables show moderate yet inconsistent growth, and seed and pod vegetables remain marginal. The findings also suggest that factors such as literacy rate and irrigation significantly influence cropping decisions. Therefore, to ensure the sustainable development of vegetable cultivation, proper planning, updated data, and policy support are essential

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