Effects of integrated nutrient management on soil health indicators, microbial activity and productivity of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

Introduction

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the most important pulse crops cultivated in India and across the world, serving as a rich source of dietary protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals (Begum et al., 2023) [1] . India is the largest producer and consumer of chickpea, contributing significantly to global pulse production (Sharma et al., 2020) [2] . In the semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, particularly in Chittorgarh, chickpea occupies an important place in the cropping system due to its adaptability to moisture-deficit conditions and its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiosis with Rhizobium. Besides improving soil fertility, chickpea contributes significantly to sustainable agriculture and farmers' income. Recent studies have emphasized the importance of improved nutrient management strategies for enhancing chickpea productivity under diverse agro-climatic conditions (Kumar et al., 2025 [3] ) [4] . Despite its importance, the productivity of chickpea in semi-arid regions remains relatively low due to poor soil fertility, imbalanced nutrient application, declining organic matter, low soil biological activity, and erratic rainfall (Korbu et al., 2020) [5] . Continuous dependence on chemical fertilizers alone has resulted in nutrient imbalance, deterioration of soil health, and reduced microbial activity, thereby affecting the long-term sustainability of crop production systems (Pahalvi et al., 2021) [6] . Therefore, there is a growing need to adopt sustainable nutrient management practices that improve crop productivity while maintaining soil fertility and environmental quality.

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) has emerged as an effective and sustainable approach for maintaining soil fertility and enhancing crop productivity. It involves the judicious and combined use of inorganic fertilizers, organic manures such as farmyard manure (FYM), compost, and vermicompost, along with biofertilizers including Rhizobium, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB), and Azotobacter, to ensure balanced nutrient supply and improve nutrient use efficiency (Panta et al., 2021) [7] . Organic nutrient sources improve soil physical properties, increase soil organic carbon, enhance water-holding capacity, and stimulate beneficial microbial activity, whereas inorganic fertilizers provide readily available nutrients during critical stages of crop growth. The integrated application of these nutrient sources ensures continuous nutrient availability and promotes sustainable crop production. Soil microorganisms play an important role in nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, and the maintenance of soil fertility. Soil enzymatic activities such as dehydrogenase, phosphatase, and urease are considered reliable indicators of soil biological health and are greatly influenced by nutrient management practices (Borase et al., 2020 [8] ) [8] . The incorporation of organic nutrient sources under INM stimulates microbial growth and enzyme activities, thereby improving nutrient transformation and availability. Similar improvements in microbial population and enzymatic activities under integrated nutrient management have been reported by Verma et al. (2024) [9,10] and Singh et al. (2025) [11] . Under semi-arid conditions, the integration of organic and inorganic nutrient sources also improves soil moisture retention, minimizes nutrient losses, and ensures sustained nutrient availability throughout the crop growth period (Selim, 2020) [12] . The combined application of organic manures, inorganic fertilizers, and biofertilizers not only improves nutrient availability but also enhances soil biodiversity and nutrient use efficiency. Organic amendments provide carbon and energy sources for beneficial microorganisms, while biofertilizers enhance biological nitrogen fixation and phosphorus solubilization, thereby reducing dependence on chemical fertilizers (Jakhar et al., 2020 [13] ; Verma et al., 2024) [13,9] . Consequently, integrated nutrient management improves crop growth, nutrient uptake, and soil fertility. Furthermore, several studies have reported higher productivity, profitability, and benefit-cost ratio under integrated nutrient management compared with the sole application of chemical fertilizers (Kumar et al., 2024 [14] ; Patel and Thanki, 2020) [14, 15] . Balanced nutrient management also improves quality parameters such as protein content and nutrient composition of chickpea, thereby contributing to nutritional security (Namdeo and Bhatnagar, 2024 [16] ; Raghuwanshi et al., 2025) [16,17] . In addition, INM promotes environmental sustainability by improving soil carbon sequestration, enhancing soil biodiversity, and reducing environmental pollution associated with excessive fertilizer use (Sharma et al., 2022 [18] ; Sharma et al., 2025 [19] ; Singh et al., 2025 [11] ) [18,19,11] . Although the advantages of integrated nutrient management have been widely reported, location-specific information under the semiarid conditions of Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, is still limited. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effect of integrated nutrient management on soil fertility, growth, yield, nutrient uptake, quality, and economics of chickpea under the semi-arid conditions of Chittorgarh, Rajasthan.

Materials and methods

A field experiment was conducted during the Rabi season of 2025-26 to evaluate the effect of integrated nutrient management on soil health indicators, microbial activity and productivity of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) at the Research Farm, Mewar University, Gangrar, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan. The experiment was laid out in a Split Plot Design (SPD) with three replications comprising twenty-four treatment combinations. The main plot treatments consisted of six organic nutrient sources [O 0: Control, O 1: FYM @ 5.0 t ha -1 , O 2: Vermicompost @ 2.0 t ha -1 , O 3: FYM @ 2.5 t ha -1 + Vermicompost @ 1.0 t ha -1 , O 4: FYM @ 3.75 t ha -1 + Vermicompost @ 0.5 t ha -1 and O 5: FYM @ 1.25 t ha -1 + Vermicompost @ 1.5 t ha -1 ], whereas the sub-plot treatments comprised four fertilizer levels [F 0: Control, F 1: 50% RDF, F 2: 75% RDF and F 3: 100% RDF]. Chickpea variety GNG-1581 was sown at a spacing of 30 cm × 10 cm. The experimental farm is situated in the South-Eastern Plain Agro-climatic Zone of Rajasthan under semi-arid climatic conditions. Before sowing, composite soil samples (0-15 cm depth) were collected and analyzed using standard analytical procedures. The experimental soil was clay loam in texture with a pH of 8.14, electrical conductivity of 0.36 dS m -1 , organic carbon content of 0.42%, available nitrogen of 216.45 kg ha -1 , available phosphorus of 17.84 kg ha -1 and available potassium of 254.52 kg ha -1 , indicating low organic carbon, low available nitrogen and phosphorus, and medium available potassium status. The crop was grown under the prevailing weather conditions of the Rabi season (2025-26). During the crop growth period, the maximum temperature ranged from 22.5 to 41.3 °C, while the minimum temperature varied from 4.9 to 25.8 °C. The mean relative humidity ranged from 21 to 75%, bright sunshine duration varied between 6.5 and 10.8 h day -1 , and a total rainfall of 9.0 mm was received during the cropping season, providing favourable conditions for evaluating the response of chickpea to integrated nutrient management practices. The recommended dose of fertilizers (20 kg N and 40 kg P 2 O 5 ha -1

) was applied through urea and diammonium phosphate (DAP), respectively, according to the treatment schedule. Organic nutrient sources were incorporated into the soil during final land preparation before sowing. The entire quantity of fertilizers was applied as a basal dose at sowing. Recommended agronomic practices, including irrigation, weed management, plant protection, and harvesting, were followed uniformly in all the treatments. Observations on growth, yield, soil physico-chemical properties, soil microbial activity, and economics were recorded using standard procedures. The experimental data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) appropriate for the Split Plot Design (SPD), and treatment means were compared using the critical difference (CD) test at the 5% level of significance.

Results and discussion

Growth parameters

Effect of organic sources

Application of different organic nutrient sources significantly influenced plant height and number of branches per plant at all growth stages (Table 1), whereas their effect on days to 50% flowering and days to maturity was non-significant. At 30 DAS, the maximum plant height (18.26 cm) was recorded under vermicompost @ 2.0 t ha -1 (O 2 ), which was statistically at par with O 5 and O 3 . However, at 45 DAS and at harvest, the highest plant height (30.58 and 53.65 cm, respectively) was recorded under O 5 (FYM @ 1.25 t ha -1 + vermicompost @ 1.50 t ha -1 ), which remained statistically at par with O 2 and O 3 . Likewise, the maximum number of branches per plant at all growth stages was also recorded under O 5 and was statistically comparable with O 2 and O 3 , whereas the lowest values were observed under the control (O 0 ). Although differences in days to 50% flowering and days to maturity were statistically non-significant, O 5 recorded the earliest flowering (68.72 days) and maturity (124.36 days), while the control required the maximum number of days. The superior vegetative growth observed under the combined application of FYM and vermicompost may be attributed to the balanced and sustained supply of nutrients, improvement in soil physical conditions, enhanced soil organic carbon, and greater microbial activity, which collectively improved nutrient uptake and photosynthetic efficiency (Selvaganapathi et al., 2025) [20] . Vermicompost is also known to contain plant growth regulators such as auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins that stimulate cell division, root proliferation, and vegetative growth, resulting in taller plants and more branches. The relatively earlier flowering and maturity under integrated organic nutrient management may be due to improved physiological activity and efficient translocation of assimilates, which accelerated crop development (Cheng et al., 2026) [21] . Similar findings have been reported by Zhiipao et al. (2023) [22] , Javed et al. (2022) [23] , and Ray et al. (2020) [24] .

Effect of fertilizer levels

The data presented in The significant improvement in growth parameters under higher fertilizer levels may be attributed to the balanced and adequate supply of essential nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, which enhanced chlorophyll formation, photosynthetic activity, protein synthesis, and cell division. Adequate nutrient availability also promoted vigorous root growth and increased nutrient uptake, resulting in greater vegetative growth, as reflected by increased plant height and branching (Lalkhumliana et al., 2025) [25] . Furthermore, balanced fertilization accelerated physiological and metabolic activities, leading to earlier flowering and maturity by promoting the timely transition from vegetative to reproductive growth. These findings are in close agreement with those of Baek et al. (2026) [26] , Tiwari et al. (2026) [27] and Wang et al. (2024) [28] .

Yield parameters

Effect of organic sources

The data presented in Table 2 revealed that different organic nutrient sources significantly influenced all the yield parameters of chickpea, including number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, test weight, grain yield, straw yield, biological yield, and harvest index. Among the organic nutrient sources, O 5 (FYM @ 1.25 t ha -1 + Vermicompost @ 1.50 t ha -1 ) recorded the maximum number of pods per plant (40.33), number of seeds per pod (1.61), test weight (16.83 g), grain yield (1.43 kg plot -1 and 19.20 q ha -1 ), and harvest index (44.08%), which remained statistically at par with O 2 (Vermicompost @ 2.0 t ha -1 ) and O 3 (FYM @ 2.5 t ha -1 + Vermicompost @ 1.0 t ha -1 ). The highest straw yield (24.63 q ha -1 ) and biological yield (43.57 q ha -1

) were recorded under O 2 , which was statistically at par with O 5 and O 3 . The minimum values for all yield parameters were observed under the control treatment (O 0 ). The significant improvement in yield attributes and yield under integrated application of FYM and vermicompost may be attributed to the sustained and balanced supply of nutrients throughout the crop growth period, improved soil physical properties, enhanced microbial activity, and increased nutrient use efficiency. Organic manures also improve soil moisture retention, root growth, and nutrient availability, resulting in greater photosynthetic activity and efficient translocation of assimilates towards reproductive organs (Baharvand et al., 2026) [29] . Consequently, better pod development, seed formation, seed weight, and overall biomass production were achieved, leading to higher grain, straw, and biological yields. The improvement in harvest index further indicates efficient partitioning of photosynthates towards economic yield. Similar findings have been reported by Miglani et al. (2021) [30] , Peng et al. (2026) [31] , Patel et al. (2025) [32] , and Shahi et al. (2025) [33] .

Effect of fertilizer levels

Fertilizer levels significantly influenced all the yield parameters of chickpea (Table 2). The application of 100% RDF (F 3 ) recorded the highest number of pods per plant (42.20), number of seeds per pod (1.79), test weight (17.99 g), grain yield (1.51 kg plot -1 and 20.28 q ha -1

), straw yield (25.64 q ha -1 ), biological yield (45.92 q ha -1 ), and harvest index (44.10%), which remained statistically at par with 75% RDF (F 2 ) for number of pods per plant and harvest index but was significantly superior to 50% RDF (F 1 ) and the control (F 0 ) for the remaining parameters. The lowest values for all yield parameters were recorded under the control treatment. The marked improvement in yield attributes and yield under higher fertilizer levels may be attributed to the balanced availability of essential nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, which promoted vigorous vegetative growth, enhanced chlorophyll synthesis, and increased photosynthetic efficiency. Adequate nutrient supply also improved flowering, pod setting, seed development, and dry matter accumulation, resulting in higher grain and straw yields (Kumar et al., 2022) [34] . Furthermore, enhanced nutrient uptake and efficient translocation of assimilates from source to sink contributed to increased biological yield and harvest index under 100% RDF. These findings are in conformity with those reported by Yadav et al. (2025) [35] , Meena et al. (2021) [36] and Varatharajan et al., (2022) [37] .

Soil properties

Effect of organic sources

The data presented in Table 3 revealed that different organic nutrient sources significantly influenced soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic carbon (OC), available nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P 2 O 5 ), available potassium (K 2 O), and microbial populations of bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes at harvest of the chickpea crop. Among the organic nutrient sources, O 5 (FYM @ 1.25 t ha -1 + Vermicompost @ 1.50 t ha -1 ) recorded the lowest soil pH (7.54), whereas the highest soil pH (7.81) was observed under the control (O 0 ). The highest EC (0.373 dS m -1

), organic carbon (0.424%), available nitrogen (165.09 kg ha -1 ), available phosphorus (23.95 kg ha -1 ), available potassium (304.33 kg ha -1 ), bacterial population (50.77 × 10 6 CFU g -1 soil), fungal population (39.81 × 10 4 CFU g -1 soil), and actinomycetes population (33.55 × 10 5 CFU g -1 soil) were also recorded under O 5 , which remained statistically at par with O 2 (Vermicompost @ 2.0 t ha -1 ) and O 3 (FYM @ 2.5 t ha -1 + Vermicompost @ 1.0 t ha -1 ) for most of the parameters. The lowest values for organic carbon, available nutrients, and microbial populations were recorded under the control treatment (O 0 ). The improvement in soil physico-chemical and biological properties under integrated application of FYM and vermicompost may be attributed to the addition of organic matter, which enhanced soil organic carbon, improved nutrient mineralization, and increased nutrient retention in the soil (Dhaliwal et al., 2021) [38] . Organic amendments also stimulated microbial proliferation by providing a continuous source of carbon and energy, thereby enhancing microbial activity and nutrient cycling. The slight reduction in soil pH under organic treatments could be due to the production of organic acids during decomposition, while the increase in EC remained within the normal range because of the gradual release of soluble nutrients (Dissanayake et al., 2024) [39] . Enhanced microbial populations further accelerated nutrient transformation and availability, resulting in improved residual soil fertility after harvest (Chauhan et al., 2024) [40] . These findings are in close agreement with those reported by Walia et al. (2024) [41] , Kumar et al. (2025) [3] and Sharma and Chadak (2022) [18,42] .

Effect of fertilizer levels

Fertilizer levels significantly influenced soil pH, EC, available macronutrients, and microbial populations at harvest of chickpea (Table 3). The application of 100% RDF (F 3 ) recorded the lowest soil pH (7.42) and the highest EC (0.358 dS m -1 ), available nitrogen (166.60 kg ha -1 ), available phosphorus (25.40 kg ha -1 ), available potassium (311.67 kg ha -1 ), bacterial population (55.51 × 10 6 CFU g -1 soil), fungal population (44.10 × 10 4 CFU g -1 soil), and actinomycetes population (37.13 × 10 5 CFU g -1 soil), which were significantly superior to the lower fertilizer levels. Organic carbon content varied only marginally (0.395-0.399%), although the differences were statistically significant, with the maximum value recorded under 100% RDF (F 3 ). The control treatment (F 0 ) recorded the lowest values for EC, available nutrients, and microbial populations. The improvement in soil nutrient status under higher fertilizer levels was primarily due to the adequate and balanced application of nitrogen and phosphorus, which increased the residual availability of nutrients in the soil after crop harvest. Enhanced plant growth and root development under optimum fertilization also stimulated root exudation, creating a favourable environment for microbial multiplication. The slight decline in soil pH with increasing fertilizer levels may be attributed to nitrification and the release of hydrogen ions during nitrogen transformation (Awadelkareem et al., 2023) [43] , whereas the increase in EC resulted from the higher concentration of soluble nutrients in the soil solution (Ismayilov et al., 2021) [44] . The improved bacterial, fungal, and actinomycetes populations under higher fertilizer levels may be associated with greater root biomass and increased substrate availability in the rhizosphere. Similar results have been reported by Ali et al. (2025) [45] , Silva et al. (2022) [46] and Aechra et al. (2021) [47] .

Conclusion

The present investigation demonstrated that integrated nutrient management (INM) significantly improved the growth, yield, soil health, microbial activity, and profitability of chickpea under the semi-arid conditions of Chittorgarh, Rajasthan. Among the organic nutrient sources, the combined application of FYM @ 1.25 t ha -1 + vermicompost @ 1.50 t ha -1 (O 5 ) proved to be the most effective, record-ing superior plant growth, yield attributes, grain yield, available soil nutrients, soil organic carbon, microbial populations, and economic returns. However, several parameters remained statistically at par with vermicompost @ 2.0 t ha -1 (O 2 ) and FYM @ 2.5 t ha -1 + vermicompost @ 1.0 t ha -1 (O 3 ), indicating that these treatments were also equally effective. Among the fertilizer levels, the application of 100% RDF (F 3 ) consistently produced the highest values for growth parameters, yield attributes, grain yield, soil fertility status, microbial populations, and economic returns, although it was statistically at par with 75% RDF (F 2 ) for several characters. Integrated application of organic manures with the recommended fertilizer dose improved nutrient availability, enhanced microbial activity, and promoted efficient nutrient utilization, resulting in better crop performance and soil health. Overall, the study suggests that the integrated use of FYM @ 1.25 t ha -1 + vermicompost @ 1.50 t ha -1 along with 100% recommended dose of fertilizers (20 kg N + 40 kg P 2 O 5 ha -1 ) can be recommended for achieving higher productivity, improving soil fertility and microbial activity, and maximizing profitability of chickpea under the semiarid conditions of Rajasthan.

Acknowledgement

I express my profound gratitude to my esteemed Major Advisor, Dr. Dharam Veer, Assistant Professor, Department of Agriculture, Mewar University, Gangrar, Chittorgarh (Rajasthan), for his invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, constructive suggestions, and unwavering support throughout the course of this investigation entitled "Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management on Soil Health Indicators, Microbial Activity and Productivity of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)." I am also sincerely thankful to the members of my Advisory Committee for their valuable guidance, insightful suggestions, and continuous encouragement during the course of the investigation. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to the Head, Department of Agriculture, Mewar University, Gangrar, Chittorgarh (Rajasthan), for providing the necessary facilities and a conducive research environment for the successful completion of this study. I also acknowledge with sincere appreciation the cooperation and assistance extended by all the faculty members and non-teaching staff of the Department of Agriculture, Mewar University, during the course of my research.

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