Effect of organic manures and fertilizer sources on soil nutrient availability and nutrient content in rice under coastal saline soil

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a major food crop in India, but its productivity in coastal regions is significantly declined by soil salinity. Coastal saline soils of the Konkan region are impacted by seawater or creek-water inundation, saline groundwater, capillary rise of salts, and poor drainage. About 65,000 ha in Maharashtra are ported positive effects of briquette-based fertilization on nutrient uptake and yield attributes of rice (Bedse et al., 2021 [13] ; Wahane et al., 2023 [15] ) [13,15] . Research in coastal saline areas of Maharashtra has also confirmed beneficial effects of organic amendments and fertilizer briquettes on rice production and nutrient management (Khobragade et al., 2025 [4] ; Abhale et al., 2026 [5] ; Vanave et al., 2026 [11] ) [4,5,11] . The integration of organic manures and efficient fertilizer sources may therefore offer harmonizing benefits by refining soil nutrient availability and nutrient uptake by rice under saline conditions. However, information on the response of rice to different organic manure-fertilizer source combinations in the coastal saline soils of Maharashtra remains limited. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the influence of farmyard manure (FYM), Gliricidia, dhaincha, and bhend in combination with the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF), UB-DAP briquette, and Konkan Annapurna Briquette (KAB) on soil nutrient availability and nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) contents of rice under coastal saline conditions at the Khar Land Research Station, Panvel, Raigad, Maharashtra.

Materials and Methods

A field experiment was conducted during the Kharif season of 2025 at the Khar Land Research Station, Panvel, District Raigad, Maharashtra, on coastal saline soil. The experimental site is located at 18°59′ N latitude and 73°10′ E longitude, about 5 m above mean sea level and about 50 m from the Arabian Sea. The region experiences a hot and humid climate with annual rainfall exceeding 1,995 mm. Before planting, a representative surface soil sample (0-22.5 cm depth) was collected from the experimental field and analysed for initial fertility status. The soil was slightly acidic, with an electrical conductivity of 4.0 dS m -1 , available nitrogen of 118.20 kg ha -1 , available phosphorus of 45.51 kg ha -1 , and available potassium of 2,038.56 kg ha -1 . Rice (Oryza sativa L.) variety Panvel-1, developed by Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli from the cross IR 8 × BR 4-10, was used as the test crop. The crop was transplanted at a spacing of 25 × 15 cm in plots (net plot) measuring 4 × 3 m. The experiment was laid out in a factorial randomized block design (FRBD) with five organic manure treatments (M 0: control (no manuring), M 1: farmyard manure (FYM) @ 10 t ha -1 , M 2: Glyricidia (Gliricidia sepium) green manure @ 10 t ha -1 , M 3: Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) green manure @ 10 t ha -1 and M 4: Bhend (Thespesia populnea) green manure @ 10 t ha -1 ) and four chemical fertilizer treat-ments (F 0: control (no fertilizer/briquettes), F 1: recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) @ 100:50:50 kg N: P 2 O 5 :K 2 O ha -1 , F 2: UB-DAP briquette containing 34:18.4% N: P 2 O 5 and F 3: Konkan Annapurna briquette (KAB) containing 34:14:06% N: P 2 O 5: K 2 O) resulting in 20 treatment combinations, each replicated three times. Representative surface soil samples (0-22.5 cm depth) were collected from each treatment at 45 days after sowing (DAS) and again at crop harvest. Composite samples were prepared by applying the quartering method for soil sample collection. The samples were air-dried under shade, gently crushed using a wooden mortar and pestle, and passed through a 2 mm sieve for general analysis. The processed samples were stored in plastic bags placed inside corrugated boxes until chemical analyses. Available nitrogen was determined by the alkaline potassium permanganate method (Subbiah et al., 1956) [16] . Available phosphorus was estimated by the Olsen method using 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate as the extracting solution (Olsen, 1954) [17] . Available potassium was extracted with 1 N neutral ammonium acetate and measured using a flame photometer (Jackson, 1973) [18] . For plant analysis, total nitrogen was determined by the Micro-Kjeldahl method, phosphorus by the vanadomolybdate yellow colour method, and potassium by flame photometry after digestion of the plant material, following the procedures described by Tandon (1993) [19] .

Results and Discussion

Data presented in Table 1 showed that soil available nitrogen (N) varied from 132.04 to 206.66 kg ha -1 at the maximum tillering stage and from 125.40 to 180.66 kg ha -1 at harvest. A reduction in available N towards harvest was observed owing to crop uptake and soil N transformations under submerged conditions. These values were comparable with those reported by Abhale et al. (2024) [10] for coastal saline soils of Maharashtra. At maximum tillering, Gliricidia application showed the highest mean available N (188.32 kg ha -1 ) compared to dhaincha (184.83 kg ha -1 ) and bhend (180.89 kg ha -1 ), while the control recorded the lowest (151.36 kg ha -1 ). The higher N availability under Gliricidia and dhaincha was related with their easily decomposable, N-rich residues and speedy mineralization (Bhatt, 2023 [20] ; Rakhonde et al., 2024 [6] ; Lyu et al., 2024 [21] ) [20,6,21] . At harvest, bhend application observed the highest mean available N (169.38 kg ha -1 ), followed by Gliricidia (162.60 kg ha -1 ) and dhaincha (161.46 kg ha -1 ), while the control recorded the lowest (142.31 kg ha -1 ). The higher residual N under bhend may have reflected because of continued decomposition of its organic residues. ) in comparison to UB-DAP (180.64 kg ha -1 ), while the no-fertilizer treatment recorded the lowest (150.74 kg ha -1 ). At harvest, available N varies from 157.50 to 160.11 kg ha -1 across fertilizer treatments, signifying that treatment differences had mostly reduced by crop maturity. The organic manure × fertilizer interaction was non-significant at maxi-mum tillering but significant at harvest. Gliricidia + RDF recorded the highest numerical value at maximum tillering (206.66 kg ha -1 ), whereas bhend + UB-DAP recorded the highest available N at harvest (180.66 kg ha -1

), followed by bhend + RDF (178.37 kg ha -1 ). The higher residual N under these blends advised a constant involvement from both organic residue decomposition and fertilizer N supply. Comparable effects of integrated nutrient management on soil N availability have been reported by Kumar et al. (2024) [22] , Hou et al. (2023) [23] , and Zhong et al. (2024) [24] . Soil available phosphorus (P) fluctuated from 51.98 to 78.27 kg ha -1 at the maximum tillering stage and from 52.26 to 85.11 kg ha -1 at harvest, with overall increase towards harvest (Table 2). This difference may be related with P mineralization and redox-induced transformations of Fe-associated P under submerged conditions (Abhale et al., 2026) [5] . The observed values were similar with those reported by Rakhonde et al. (2024) [6] and Abhale et al. (2024) [10] for coastal saline soils of Maharashtra. Organic manure treatments significantly enhanced available P at both stages. Dhaincha recorded significantly highest mean available P at maximum tillering (71.21 kg ha -1 ) and at harvest (78.20 kg ha -1 ), while the control recorded the lowest values (56.84 and 63.69 kg ha -1 , respectively). The higher P under dhaincha was linked with the decomposition of nutrient-rich biomass and greater P mineralization and mobilization (Gu et al., 2024) [25] . [25] Fertilizer application also significantly improved available P at both stages. Konkan Annapurna Briquette (KAB) showed the highest mean at maximum tillering (68.03 kg ha -1 ), while UB-DAP showed the highest value at harvest (78.38 kg ha -1 ). The stage-dependent response might have shown differences in P release and transformation under flooded conditions. The organic manure × fertilizer interaction was significant at both stages. At maximum tillering, dhaincha + KAB recorded the highest available P (78.27 kg ha -1 ), while at harvest, dhaincha + UB-DAP recorded the highest value (85.11 kg ha -1 ). The lowest values at both stages were recorded under the unfertilized and unmanured control (51.98 and 52.26 kg ha -1 ). Significant higher P under the integrated treatments designated corresponding effects of organic residue decomposition and fertilizer-derived P supply. Similar benefits of integrated nutrient management on P availability have been reported by Hou et al. (2023) [23] . at harvest, with a general decline towards harvest attributable to advanced crop uptake (Table 3). Organic manure, fertilizer source, and their interaction meaningfully influenced available K at maximum tillering; however, the fertilizer effect was non-significant at harvest. Among the organic manures, farmyard manure (FYM) recorded the highest mean available K at maximum tillering (1,549.68 kg ha -1 ), whereas dhaincha confirmed the highest value at harvest (1,421.08 kg ha -1 ). Among the fertilizer treatments, the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) proved the highest mean at maximum tillering (1,565.25 kg ha -1 ). The highest interaction values were observed under FYM + RDF (1,655.00 kg ha -1 ) at maximum tillering and under dhaincha + no fertilizer (1,453.57 kg ha -1 ) at harvest, although the unfertilized and unmanured control normally recorded the lowest values. The higher available K under organic amendments was linked with K release and recycling during residue decomposition. Similar enhancements in soil K cycling under organic and integrated nutrient management have been reported by Wang et al. (2023) [26] . The observed variation in soil K was also consistent with the dynamic distribution of K fractions reported for coastal soils of Raigad district (Rakhonde et al., 2024 [6] , 2025 [7] , 2025 [27] ; Abhale et al., 2026 [5] ) [7,6] .

Nutrient content in plant parts

Nitrogen concentration in rice straw and grain was significantly influenced by organic manure and fertilizer sources. Straw N ranged from 0.93% under farmyard manure (FYM) to 1.04% under Gliricidia, while grain N ranged from 1.35% under the control to 1.52% under Gliricidia (Table 4). Among the fertilizer treatments, Konkan Annapurna Briquette (KAB) showed the highest straw N (1.03%), while UB-DAP had the highest grain N (1.56%). The organic manure × fertilizer interaction was non-significant for straw N but significant for grain N, with the highest grain N concentration (1.79%) observed under FYM + UB-DAP. The higher N concentration under integrated nutrient treatments was linked with better N availability and uptake, mainly during grain development. Alike effects of integrated nutrient management on N uptake and accumulation in rice have been opined by Bhardwaj et al. (2023) [28] and Shukla et al. (2024) [29] . Phosphorus concentration in rice straw and grain was significantly affected by organic manure and fertilizer sources. Straw P ranged from 0.11% under the no-manure treatment to 0.13% under farmyard manure (FYM), Gliricidia, and bhend, however grain P ranged from 0.22% under the control and dhaincha to 0.24% under bhend (Table 5). Among the fertilizer sources, Konkan Annapurna Briquette (KAB) had the highest straw P (0.127%), but UB-DAP showed the highest grain P (0.27%). The manure × fertilizer interaction was non-significant for straw P but significant for grain P. The highest grain phosphorus (P) content (0.35%) was observed under Gliricidia + Konkan Annapurna Briquette (KAB), followed by bhend + UB-DAP (0.31%).

The greater P concentration under integrated nutrient management directed better P availability and uptake subsequent from the corre-sponding effects of organic residue decomposition and fertilizer-derived P supply. Similar improvements in P uptake under integrated nutrient management have been reported by Mitran and Mani (2017) [30] and Liu et al. (2024) [31] . Potassium (K) concentration in rice straw and grain was influenced primarily by fertilizer sources, while the effect of organic manures was less pronounced. Straw K varied from 0.35% under the no-manure treatment to 0.41% under dhaincha, however grain K ranged from 0.16% under the control to 0.23% under bhend (Table 6). Among the fertilizer sources, KAB recorded the highest straw K (0.43%), while the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) showed the highest grain K (0.24%).

Tr

Straw (%) Grain (%) The manure effect was non-significant for straw K but significant for grain K, whereas the manure × fertilizer interaction was non-significant for both straw and grain K. Numerically, the highest straw K (0.46%) was recorded under dhaincha + KAB and the highest grain K (0.26%) under bhend + KAB. The higher K concentration under fertilized treatments showed improved K availability and uptake, while organic manure application associated to nutrient recycling through residue decomposition. Similar improvements in K uptake under integrated nutrient management have been reported by Sethi et al. (2024) [32] , Shukla et al. (2024) [29] , and Liu et al. (2024) [31] .

Correlation among soil available nutrients and content

Correlation analysis showed positive relationships between soil available nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) at the maximum tillering and harvest stages, as well as with nutrient contents in rice grain and straw (Table 7). Soil available N at maximum tillering had a strong positive association with soil available P (r = 0.726**) and a moderate positive relationship with soil available K (r = 0.513**).

Likewise, soil available P at harvest was positively associated with soil available K at harvest (r = 0.446**), signifying interrelationships among the available macronutrients during rice growth. Among the relationships between soil nutrients and grain nutrient contents, soil available P at maximum tillering shown the solid positive correlation with grain N (r = 0.580**), followed by soil available P at harvest (r = 0.288**). Grain K was positively related with soil available N at harvest (r = 0.469**), soil available P at maximum tillering (r = 0.494**), and soil available K at maximum tillering (r = 0.316**). Grain P had positive correlations with soil available N, P, and K at both sampling stages, though the strength of these relationships varied.

Nutrient concentrations in rice straw also had positive relationships with soil nutrient availability. Straw N was strongly associated with soil available N at maximum tillering (r = 0.589**) and positively correlated with soil available P at harvest (r = 0.457**). Straw P had positive relationship with soil available N at maximum tillering (r = 0.468**) and soil available P at harvest (r = 0.491**). Straw K showed moderately weak relationships with soil nutrient availability; the relationship between straw K and soil available K at harvest was non-significant (r = 0.087). Among plant nutrient contents, grain N was positively associated with grain P (r = 0.384**), but straw N was positively correlated with straw P (r = 0.496**). Grain and straw nutrient contents also had positive relationship with one another, but the strength of the relationships varied across nutrients. Similar relationships between soil nutrient availability, (2-tailed), ns = non-significant nutrient uptake, and rice productivity have been documented under integrated nutrient management systems (Mi et al., 2018 [33] ; Jun et al., 2022 (Xie et al., 2022) [34] ) [34,33] . These findings showed that soil nutrient availability was correlated with nutrient accumulation in rice grain and straw, but the observed relations did not find contributing relationships.

Conclusion

The study confirmed that the integrated application of organic manures and fertilizer sources improved soil nutrient availability and nutrient concentration in rice under coastal saline conditions. Among the organic manures, Gliricidia and dhaincha showed positive effect in improving available nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), respectively. Fertilizer sources enhanced soil nutrient availability and plant nutrient concentration, with responses varying according to the nutrient and growth stage. Among the integrated treatments, farmyard manure (FYM) + UB-DAP showed the highest grain N concentration (1.79%), while Gliricidia + Konkan Annapurna Briquette (KAB) had the highest grain P concentration (0.35%). KAB confirmed the highest straw potassium (K) concentration (0.43%), but the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) showed the highest grain K concentration (0.24%). Correlation analysis further discovered positive relationship between soil nutrient availability and nutrient content in rice grain and straw. In general, the findings showed that integrated nutrient management can improve soil nutrient status and nutrient accumulation in rice grown under coastal saline conditions. Nevertheless, as the study was conducted for a single season, the findings are preliminary and require further confirmation through long-term and multiseason experiments under varying coastal saline conditions.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgementThe authors are grateful to Dr. B.S. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli for providing facilities to carry out the research work.

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