Mental health of commuter and non-commuter married couples

Introduction

Marriage is an important social institution that provides emotional companionship, social support and shared responsibility. However, changes in employment patterns, occupational mobility and the increasing need to travel for employment have contributed to the emergence of commuter marriages. In such relationships, spouses may maintain separate residences or spend substantial periods apart because of work-related geographical separation. Unlike non-commuter couples who generally share the same residence and daily routines, commuter couples need to coordinate marital, family and occupational responsibilities across geographical locations. Physical separation can reduce opportunities for face-to-face interaction and shared daily experiences and may create additional demands related to communication, household responsibilities, childcare and emotional adjustment. The psychological implications of commuting have received increasing attention. A systematic review by Liu et al. (2022) [1] , based on 45 studies, found that commuting characteristics such as duration and mode were associated with experiential and general mental health and that adverse effects of commuting could spill over into home and work life. Research specifically examining long-distance relationships has also indicated differences in mental health according to relationship proximity. Puranachaikere et al. (2021) [2] , using data from 7,145 respondents in East Asia, found that participants in proximal relationships reported better overall mental health than those in long-distance relationships. Further, a review specifically addressing commuting and partnership/family life noted that commuting may have consequences for health, partnership and family life, particularly among dual-career couples and longdistance commuters. Despite these findings, there remains a need to examine mental health among married couples experiencing work-related geographical separation within the Indian context. Therefore, the present study focused on the mental health of commuter and non-commuter married couples in Dharwad city.

3. To identify the predictors of mental health among commuter and non-commuter married couples.

Materials and methods

An exploratory, differential and correlational research design was adopted for the study. The study was conducted in Dharwad city, Karnataka, during the academic year 2025-2026. The study population comprised married couples residing in Dharwad city. A purposive sample of 100 married couples (200 individuals), consisting of 50 commuter couples and 50 non-commuter couples, was selected. Both partners from each couple were included in the study. The inclusion criteria were married couples in which both partners were working, with commuter couples having experienced work-related geographical separation for at least one year. A General Information Schedule was used to collect information on selected personal, and family characteristics. Mental health was assessed using the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) developed by Lovibond et al. (1995) [3] . The independent variables considered in the study included age, gender, education, occupation, age at marriage, duration of commutation, frequency of reunion, mode of commutation, number of children, age and gender of children, type of family and monthly income. The selected tools were pretested before the main data collection to assess their reliability and validity. Data was collected through both physical questionnaires and online Google Forms. Eligible participants were identified through local community networks and workplace contacts and were screened according to the inclusion criteria. The purpose and procedure of the study were explained to the participants, and voluntary participation was ensured. Adequate privacy and sufficient time were provided for completing the questionnaires. The collected data was coded, tabulated and analysed using appropriate descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. Frequency and percentage were used to describe the sample characteristics. Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to examine the relationships between selected independent variables and depression, anxiety and stress. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed to identify significant predictors of depression, anxiety and stress among commuter and non-commuter married couples.

Results

(N = 200) ). In terms of gender, an equal proportion (50.00%) of commuter couples comprised males and females. Similarly, among non-commuter couples, 50.00 per cent were males and 50.00 per cent were females. Regarding educational qualification, more than half (57.00%) of commuter couples were graduates, followed by 20.00 per cent postgraduates, 18.00 per cent professionally qualified with technical degree or diploma and 5.00 per cent 10th class pass but below graduation. Further, among non-commuter couples, majority were graduates (64.00%), followed by postgraduates (23.00%), 10th class pass but below graduation (8.00%) and professionally qualified with technical degree or diploma (5.00%).

In terms of occupation, more than half (62.00%) of commuter couples were engaged in service in the private sector or independent business, while 38.00 per cent were employed in the central/state/public sector. Similarly, among non-commuter couples, more than half (63.00%) were engaged in service in the private sector or independent business, whereas 37.00 per cent were employed in the central/state/public sector. With respect to age at marriage, about two third (71.00%) of commuter couples were married between 21-25 yrs, followed by 26-30 yrs (25.00%) and 4.00 per cent were between 31-35 yrs. While among non-commuter couples, more than half (61.00%) were married between 21-25 yrs, followed by 26-30 yrs (34.00%) and 31-35 yrs (5.00%). Regarding number of children, majority (86.00%) of commuter couples had 1-2 children, while 14.00 per cent had 3-4 chil-dren. Likewise, among non-commuter couples, majority (90.00%) had 1-2 children, whereas 10.00 per cent had 3-4 children.

With respect to age of children, half (50.00%) of the commuter couples had children aged below 10 yrs, followed by 10-20 yrs (38.00%) and 12.00 per cent had children above 20 yrs. On the other hand, among non-commuter couples, nearly half (46.00%) had children aged below 10 yrs, followed by 10-20 yrs (28.00%) and above 20 yrs (26.00%). In terms of gender of children, more than half (58.00%) of commuter couples had both male and female children, followed by only male children (32.00%) and only female children (10.00%).

Similarly, among non-commuter couples, more than half (56.00%) had both male and female children, followed by only male children (26.00%) and only female children (18.00%).

With respect to type of family, about two third (68.00%) of commuter couples belonged to nuclear families, followed by joint families (32.00%). On the other hand, among non-commuter couples, more than half (60.00%) belonged to nuclear families, while 40.00 per cent belonged to joint families. With regard to monthly income of family, majority (73.00%) of commuter couples had an income of above Rs. 50,000, while 27.00 per cent had an income between Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 49,999. While among non-commuter couples, more than half (63.00%) had an income between Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 49,999, whereas 37.00 per cent had an income of above Rs. 50,000. With respect to duration of commutation, 44.00 per cent reported commuting for 6-9 hrs per day, followed by 30.00 per cent who commuted for less than 3 hrs, while 26.00 per cent reported a commuting duration of more than 6 hrs. In terms of frequency of reunion, one fourth (26.00%) of commuter couples reunited once in a month, followed by once in a fortnight (22.00%), once in a week (20.00%), twice in a week (16.00%) and once in two months (16.00%). Regarding mode of commutation, more than half (58.00%) of commuter couples used their own transport, while 42.00 per cent used public transport.

Discussion

The present study revealed that commuter couples experienced poorer mental health than non-commuter couples, with comparatively higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress. This may be attributed to prolonged physical separation, reduced opportunities for emotional companionship, difficulties in sharing family responsibilities and the additional demands associated with maintaining family life across locations. The finding is supported by Puranachaikere et al. (2021) [2] , who reported better overall mental health among individuals in proximal relationships compared with those in long-distance relationships in an East Asian sample. Similarly, Yucel et al. (2023) [4] found that individuals in living-apart-together relationships had poorer mental health than married individuals, highlighting the relevance of relationship arrangement to psychological well-being. In the present study, several personal and familial factors were also significantly associated with mental-health dimensions among commuter couples, suggesting that the psychological well-being of commuters may be shaped by both the demands of separation and their individual and family circumstances. Overall, the findings highlight the need for adequate emotional support, regular family interaction and effective management of work and family demands among commuter couples.

Conclusion

The present study concludes that commuter couples experienced comparatively poorer mental health than non-commuter couples, with higher levels of depression, anxiety and stress. The findings suggest that prolonged commuting and physical separation may contribute to psychological distress by limiting emotional companionship, increasing work-family demands and creating difficulties in managing family responsibilities. Significant associations were observed between mental health and selected personal and familial factors, particularly among commuter couples. Regression analysis further indicated that commuting-related factors, socioeconomic characteristics and familyrelated variables contributed to variations in depression, anxiety and stress. The findings highlight the need for greater emotional support, effective communication, regular family interaction and appropriate management of work-family demands to promote the mental well-being of commuter couples.

References

1. Liu J, Ettema D, Helbich M. Systematic review of the association between commuting, subjective wellbeing and mental health. Travel Behaviour and Society. 2022;28:59-74.
2. Puranachaikere T, Sahebi B, Aiello CM, Kumaria S, Sher TG. Extension of marriage benefit to long-distance relationship: Comparative evidence from East Asia. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand. 2021;104(3):402-409.
3. Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH. The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1995;33(3):335-343.
4. Yucel D, Latshaw BA. Mental health across the life course for men and women in married, cohabiting, and living apart together relationships. Journal of Family Issues. 2023;44(8):2025-2053.