Addressing climate change effects on aquaculture nutrition: A review of fish feed ingredients and adaptation approaches: a review

Introduction

In the twenty-first century, the aquaculture and fisheries sectors have acquired significant acknowledgment for their crucial role in enhancing worldwide food security and nutrition. In 2020, the worldwide production of aquatic animals was estimated at 178 million tonnes. Capture fisheries produced 90 million tonnes, making up 51 percent of the total, while aquaculture contributed 88 million tonnes, comprising 49 percent. The average consumption of aquatic animal foods per person increased by approximately 1.4 % per year, rising fluence of climate change on aquaculture cannot be disregarded (Pailan et al., 2023) [7] . Rising worldwide temperatures certainly impact individual fish by modifying physiological functions, including metabolism, thermal tolerance, reproductive success, growth, food consumption, and the ability to sustain internal homeostasis amidst a fluctuating outside environment (Ficke et al., 2007) [9] . At this crossroads, the aquaculture industry faces the dual pressures of meeting global food demand and addressing the consequences of climate change. The need for sustainable, climate-proof fish feed solutions has never been more critical. Traditional fish feed ingredients, such as fish oil and fishmeal, are becoming increasingly scarce and costly because of overfishing, habitat destruction, and changing ocean conditions (Kumar et al., 2023) [4] . Future fish diets will incorporate a broader array of alternative ingredients to fishmeal compared to the present. Most of these ingredients are more complex than fishmeal, necessitating comprehensive assessment to ascertain their nutrient content and suitable inclusion concentrations within potential diets (Glencross et al., 2007) [10] . In fluctuating climatic conditions, metabolic and physiological responses undergo alterations, necessitating increased energy intake from food. Hence, it's essential to devise a nutritional plan to effectively manage this phenomenon. The quality of feed could also impact the adjustment to climate stressors (Pailan et al., 2023) [7] . Given the evolving climate conditions, sustaining the growth of aquaculture poses significant challenges, particularly concerning the nutritional and feed management of cultivated aquatic species. Research on the impact of climate change on fish nutrition, especially the feed ingredients is a dynamic field with ongoing studies exploring various aspects of this complex issue. In an earlier review, Rahman et al. (2018) made a thorough review discussing the broader consequences of climate change on aquaculture, including implications for feed availability, feed conversion efficiency, and fish growth and health, and explored adaptation and mitigation strategies to strengthen the resilience of aquaculture. However, the necessity of a detailed review highlighting the impacts on fish feed ingredients is still unexplored. Against this backdrop, this review provides insights into the consequences of climate change on the availability of feed components, and feeding options of fish. Further, this review explores innovative and sustainable alternatives that can help secure the future of aquaculture.

The impact of climate change on aquaculture

Aquaculture serves as a means to attain long-term viability in the output of aquatic goods. Given the ongoing unsustainable depletion of resources from capture fisheries, the aquaculture industry is increasingly viewed as the sole resolution to fulfil the growing global request for aquatic goods (Maulu et al., 2021; Pailan et al., 2023) [11,7] . Fisheries and aquaculture pay particular attention to plants and poikilothermic animals because they are highly susceptible to temperature variations in their surrounding environment, which are increasingly influenced by climate change (Kumar et al., 2023) [4] . The primary concern at present revolves around whether the industry is expanding sustainably and rapidly adequate to cope with the projected future need, which is further exacerbated by the swift growth of the human population and the altering climate (Myers et al., 2017; Maulu et al., 2021) [12,11] . Climate change denotes alterations in the statistical patterns of weather over prolonged periods, usually spanning from decades to millions of years (Yazdi and Shakouri, 2010) [13] . Furthermore, the solubility of oxygen (O 2 ) in water demonstrates a negative correlation with water temperature (Ficke et al., 2007) [9] . The consequences of climate change on the sustainability of aquaculture have attracted significant attention due to the industry's substantial involvement in world food security, nutrition, and livelihoods (Dabbadie et al., 2019; Maulu et al., 2021) [14,11] . Climate change exacerbates the complexity and uncertainty of aquaculture systems, potentially leading to a range of unfavourable conditions (Galappaththi et al., 2020) [15] . One significant ramification of climate change is the global limited avail-ability of fresh water, which adversely impacts aquaculture productivity and intensifies the demand for water resources (Turral et al., 2011) [16] . The physiology of fish is closely intertwined with temperature, as they have evolved to adapt to specific hydrological conditions and ecological niches. Consequently, their physiology and life cycle will inevitably be influenced by changes brought about by climate change (Ficke et al., 2007) [9] . Anticipated consequences of climate change on aquaculture production are costs, along with additional necessary goods and services for fishers and aquaculture producers (Maulu et al., 2021) [11] likely to manifest through both direct and indirect pathways. Direct effects encompass the influence on the physical and physiological facts of finfish and shellfish stocks within culture systems. Indirect effects may arise from alterations in primary and secondary productivity, ecosystem structure, and input supplies, or through impacts on product prices, including fluctuations in fish oil and fishmeal.

Significance of fish feed ingredients in aquaculture

Feeds and feed ingredients comprise the vital energy and nutrients required for the development, reproduction, and well-being of aquatic creatures. Imbalances in these nutrients can hinder growth or predispose animals to illnesses. Dietary standards establish the optimal levels of energy, fats, protein, amino acids, minerals, and vitamins necessary for aquatic animal health (Prabu et al., 2017) [17] . Assessing feed ingredients is essential for nutritional research and the progress of feeds for aquaculture species (Glencross et al., 2007) [10] . When assessing ingredients for aquaculture feeds, it's crucial to comprehend several key factors to effectively incorporate a specific ingredient into feed formulation. This encompasses understanding (1) ingredient digestibility, (2) ingredient palatability, and (3) nutrient utilization and potential interference (Glencross et al., 2007) [10] . Prepared diets can be categorized as either complete or supplemental. Complete diets furnish all the required nutrients, including carbohydrates, fats, protein, minerals and vitamins required for the maximum development and well-being of fish (Prabu et al., 2017) [17] . In assessing specific ingredients, the goal of nutritional science ideally should be to acquire insights into the nutritional consequences of utilizing those ingredients. Subsequently, once this understanding is attained, efforts should focus on applying it to the formulation of commercial feeds. While it may be noted that there isn't a singular approach to conducting ingredient evaluations, there are evidently drawbacks and challenges to be mindful of during the assessment procedure (Glencross et al., 2007) [10] .

Challenges and impacts of climate change on feed ingredients

The global output from aquaculture has consistently risen while capture fishery production has been decreasing. Aquaculture holds significant promise in addressing the growing demand for fish, but one of its key hurdles lies in securing an adequate supply of feed ingredients (Bandara, 2018) [18] . Aquaculture production relies entirely on nutrient provision, similar to agricultural practices on land (Tacon et al., 2008) [19] .

Plant based feed ingredients

Incorporating plant-based components into fish feed is a widespread exercise driven by their greater availability and lower cost in comparison to fish meal (Bandara, 2018) [18] . Plant-derived feed components have emerged essential components of fish feed, providing energy and serving as binders to guarantee pellet durability in water until ingested (Raza et al., 2019) [20] . Acacia, copra meal, lupin seed meal, sunflower meal, safflower meal, soybean meal, peaseed meal, cottonseed meal, leucaena leaf meal, and various dried aquatic plants, including both floating and submerged varieties with high protein content, are also utilized in fish feed production (Hajra et al., 2013) [21] . Moreover, soybean meal (SBM) has been recognized as a feasible alternative plant protein for fishmeal (Singh et al., 2023) [22] (Table 1).

Many potential alternative nutrient sources derived from plants are recognized to contain a diverse array of antinutritional substances with imbalanced amino acid profile and lower protein content (Francis et al., 2001; Bandara, 2018) [24,18] . Antinutritional factors operate through various mechanisms but can negatively impact feed consumption and digestibility of nutrients in fish species (Bandara, 2018) [18] (Table 2). The majority of anti-nutrients present in protein sources used in fish feed, when incorporated at certain levels, do not cause mortality but rather induce adverse physiological effects, resulting in decreased growth and compromised health conditions. Reduced food conversion efficiency, hypoglycaemia (decreased blood glucose levels), pancreatic hypertrophy, liver damage, and other abnormal tissue changes are commonly noticed (Hajra et al., 2013) [21] .

Table 1. Average nutrient composition (%) of common plant based feed ingredients in fish diet (Adapted from Pilly and Kutty, 2005) [23] Plant The present utilization of plant-based aquaculture feeds (PBAF) as substitutes for fishmeal heavily depends on a handful of primary crops like soy, maize, and wheat. However, these crops, crucial for direct human consumption, are susceptible to negative impacts from climate change (Hall, 2015) [5] . The cultivation and availability of traditional crops used in aquaculture feed production, including soybean, rapeseed, maize, rice, and wheat bran, are anticipated to undergo significant changes due to climate change. Consequently, this will have implications for feed production and utilization in fish culture (Raza et al., 2019) [20] . It is recognized that climate change is expected to have detrimental impacts on tropical terrestrial agriculture, and a significant portion of the agricultural waste products utilized in aquafeeds are sourced from tropical regions (De Silva et al., 2009) [25] . The cultivation of soybeans in major producing nations like Brazil has experienced a decline, primarily attributed to environmental concerns (Singh et al., 2023) [22] . Due to climate change, crop production will experience alterations in both quantity and quality (Pailan et al., 2023) [7] . Ultimately, it will have impacts on aquafeeds production.

Fish meal

Fish meal is a solid product derived from grinding of fish and fish byproducts, followed by the removal of water and all or some of the oil content (Murthy et al., 2019) [26] . Fish meal serves as a naturally balanced feed component, rich in protein, energy, and minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. Additionally, it contains essential vitamins like choline, biotin, and vitamins B 12 , A, D, and E, along with micro-nutrients like selenium and iodine. Two primary categories of fish meal exist: one derived from the byproducts of processing various edible fishery products (such as salmon or tuna), and the other obtained from fish specifically caught to produce fish meal (like herring, menhaden, or pollack) (Cho et al., 2011) [27] . Based on the data at hand, approximately 20 million metric tonnes of fish are harvested, constituting 11% of the overall catch, and are allocated for non-food purposes. Out of this, about 16 million metric tonnes, equivalent to 9.03% of the total catch, are specifically utilized for the production of fish oil and fishmeal (FAO, 2022) [1] . The feed manufacturing sector relies significantly on fish meal as a key provider of nutritional protein (Bandara, 2018) [18] (Table 3). Half of the fish meal utilized by the aquaculture industry amounts to 50%, while the fish oil content in aquafeeds make up to approximately 88% (Shamshak et al., 2008) [28] . Table 3. Nutritional profile of fish meal (Adapted from Cho et al., 2011) [27] Nutrients Availability

Crude Protein (%) In spite of these noted advantages, the manufacturing of fish oil and fish meal relies heavily on marine fishery yields and incidental catch.

Global fish meal production data indicate a steady decline on average of 1.7% per year (Tacon et al., 2008) [19] . Fishmeal production is concentrated in specific regions worldwide, leading to increased costs and challenges in sourcing it for many aquaculture-practicing countries (Francis et al., 2001) [24] . The availability of fish meal is not guaranteed year-round (Hajra et al., 2013) [21] . Globally, the majority of fish meal is utilized in feed for terrestrial animals like swine and poultry (Trushenski et al., 2006) [29] . As a result, the growing production of terrestrial animals is leading to competition for fish meal as a valuable feed ingredient.

Figure 1. Impacts of climate change on plant based ingredients

Pelagic or forage fish, primarily employed in fishmeal production, exhibit greater sensitivity to climatic events due to their high reliance on inter-annual, environmentally induced variations in recruitment (Jannathulla et al., 2019) [30] . The increased production of fish from intensive aquaculture techniques has heightened the need for fishmeal sourced from small pelagic fishes, emerging as a progressively significant concern (Soliman et al., 2017) [31] . The bycatch from capture fisheries which is the major source of fish meal production were observed to be impacted by climate change (Merino et al., 2010; Lindegren et al., 2013) [33,32] . Alterations in ocean circulation patterns could potentially adversely affect the dependability of small pelagic stocks utilized in fishmeal production (Soliman et al., 2017; Révész et al., 2019) [31,34] . Natural fish food organisms, including phytoplankton, zooplankton, crustaceans, and bivalve molluscs, are sensitive to environmental factors. Climate change might have adverse impacts on these organisms, resulting in a decline in aquaculture performance (Reid et al., 2019; Pailan et al., 2023) [35,7] . Warmer oceans with increased thermal stratification could result in a decrease in phytoplankton species diversity, as some species may have less adaptive capacity to thrive in such conditions (Acevedo-Trejos et al., 2014) [36] . The anticipated global warming is also predicted to reduce the levels of omega-3 fatty acids (FAs) in phytoplankton, which serves as the primary source of omega-3 FAs in aquatic environments. This potential decrease may carry consequences for the crucial omega-3 FA content in fish feed (Reid et al., 2019) [35]

Insect meal

Insect farming is regarded as environmentally friendly because it makes efficient use of limited resources and boasts a low carbon footprint (Singh et al., 2023) [22] . In the past twenty years, studies have been carried out to investigate the impacts of substituting fish meal with insect meals on the growth and health of various aquaculture species (Daniel, 2018) [37] . Feeding fish with insect-based meals has been found to significantly impact their growth performance. The development of aquatic organisms fed with insects varies depending on the developmental stage and species of both the insects and the aquatic organism (Hameed et al., 2022) [38] . Insect meal is abundant in essential amino acids (EAAs) such as lysine and methionine, although slight variations may occur depending on the insect taxon. Insect meal additionally comprises compounds like taurine and hydroxyproline, which are typically lacking in plant-based feed (Henry et al., 2015) [39] . In Europe and various regions worldwide, there's an anticipation that insects will increasingly substitute animal-derived proteins, especially within the fisheries and poultry industries (Singh et al., 2023) [22] . (Table 4). The exoskeleton of insects consists primarily of the polysaccharide chitin. Despite the presence of chitinase enzyme, which can potentially break down chitin, it remains largely indigestible for most fishes. Furthermore, there have been reports of bioaccumulation of pesticides in fish through the consumption of insects (Ogunji et al.,

2007) [41] . The limited presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in land-based insects diminishes their effectiveness as feed for marine fish. The large-scale cultivation of insects for use in aquaculture is still in its nascent stages of evolution (Bandara, 2018) [18] .

Figure 2. Challenges in insect meal in aquaculture (Singh et al., 2023) [22] The extent of shifts in precipitation and temperature trends varies globally, which means that insect species inhabiting different environments will also vary in regards to the degree of climate change they encounter and their sensitivity to these changes (Stange et al., 2010) [42] . The rise in climatic variability has led to a decrease in the level of parasitism among caterpillars. This decrease, in turn, might escalate the occurrence and severity of herbivore outbreaks (Sangle et al., 2015) [43] . Climate warming additionally mitigates the risk of winter mortality among insect populations by reducing the incidence of extreme cold temperatures (Ayres et al., 2000) [44] . Climate can also induce indirect effects on a particular insect species through its influence on the physiology of vegetation or natural enemies (Stange et al., 2010) [42] .

Table 5. Inclusion of insect-based meals in aquafeeds for different fish fpecies

Acipenser baerii Hermetia illucens 0-100

Terrestrial animal by-products

Terrestrial animal by-products such as blood meal, poultry waste, bone meal and meat have been extensively employed as protein sources for numerous fish species. This is attributed to their high protein level and favourable EAA profiles (Tacon 1990).

Poultry by-products

Poultry by-products encompass ground components of poultry byproduct meal, comprising necks, legs, underdeveloped eggs, and a small quantity of feathers, which are inherent to processing procedures and unavoidable (Jayathilakan et al., 2012) [45] . One of the most promising substitutes for fishmeal is poultry by-products because of their high protein content, essential fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, palatability, and protein quality (Galkanda-Arachchige et al. 2020) [46] . Additionally, Poultry by-products was shown to be a more affordable protein source than FM and easily accessible in huge numbers all year round, particularly in areas that produce poultry, like Asia (Galkanda-Arachchige et al. 2020) [46] .

Blood meal

Animal blood that is clean and fresh is used to make blood meal.

Blood meal normally has quantities of crude protein and crude fat ranging from 80-85% and 0.5%-3%, respectively (NRC, 2011). High levels of histidine and lysine can be found in blood meals. Based on the species and its life stage, different diversity rates pertain to blood meals. However, adding blood meal at a rate of 5-10% could produce the best outcomes (Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual, 2012). The widespread adoption of blood meal in aquaculture is primarily fueled by its consistent quality and increased digestibility (Nogueira et al., 2012) [47] . Additionally, blood meal has been shown to help prevent cataracts in farmed salmon (Salmo Salar) (Breck et al., 2003) [48] .

Feather meal

The high protein content and easy availability of feather meal, which is obtained from the slaughter of chicken, make it a good substitute protein source for aquafeeds. Rich in essential amino acids (EAA) in-cluding cystine, threonine, and arginine, feather meal has a crude protein content of around 800-900 g/kg (Tesfaye et al., 2017) [49] . The protein content of feather meal ranges from 76.40-87.30% (Han et al., 1991) [50] . The diets of rainbow trout (O. mykiss) and European seabass (D. labrax) (Campos et al., 2017) [51] , have been found to benefit from the use of feather meal as a replacement for other protein-rich components (Dalsgaard et al., 2012) [52] . Poultry by-products are not efficiently utilized by fish due to their low digestibility and inadequate EAA profiles. When included at higher rates, feather meal has been observed to negatively affect the growth of several fish species. According to Sulieman et al., (2011) [53] fish do not effectively consume poultry by-products because of their low digestibility and insufficient EAA profiles. In comparison to fish meal, feather meal contains less EAA such as histidine, lysine, methionine, and tryptophan (Klemesrud et al., 2000) [54] . Studies conducted by Hasan et al. (1997) [55] have shown that the inclusion of feather meal at higher rates might have an adverse effect on the development of multiple fish species. Poultry productivity is impacted by climate change because it disrupts the animals' healthy balance. According to Abioja et al., (2021) [56] , birds under heat stress frequently show negative symptoms as reduced feed intake, growth rate, feed digestion and efficiency, immunity, welfare, and survivorship. Poultry by-product meals depend on the poultry industry, which may face disruptions in production due to heat stress, disease outbreaks, and feed availability under changing climates. This affects the consistent supply and cost of Poultry by-product for fish feed (Sandström et al., 2022) [57] . The availability of lysine in blood meal was shown to be negatively correlated with heat application (Nogueira et al., 2012) [47] . Blood meal and feather meal are nutrient-rich but may face seasonal or regional production variability worsened by climate stressors on livestock health and productivity (Hasan et al., 2024) [58] . Climate-driven supply chain challenges, including transportation and storage under more extreme weather, can degrade these perishable by-products, affecting their quality for aquafeed use (Campos et al., 2020) [59] .

Approaches to address challenges in fish nutrition caused by climate change

Integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA) systems

One method of adapting to climate change is "Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA)" (Clements et al., 2017) [60] . As an example of an ecosystem-centered aquaculture technique, it involves the co-culture of food finfish, inorganic extractive species such as seaweeds, and organic extractive species such as shellfishes from various trophic levels in an integrated farm. The goal of this strategy is to create environmentally sustainable, well-balanced systems (Troell et al., 2009; Chopin et al., 2012) [62,61] . The IMTA system uses natural food sources found in the system to meet around half of the nutritional needs of farmed fish, reducing the quantity of feed utilized in aquaculture operations (Fawole et al., 2023) [63] . In IMTA, shellfish and seaweeds absorb waste particles and nutrients, thereby reducing mineralization and mitigating higher water temperatures (Sreejariya et al., 2011) [64] . This can lead to decreased waste production, alleviate environmental stress, and promote the sustainability of aquaculture practices. In IMTA, seaweeds play a role in cooling water by absorbing pollutants and toxic elements. Additionally, they contribute to carbon sequestration through photosynthesis (Chung et al., 2013) [65] . In coastal open-waters, IMTA may be less susceptible to the effects of floods, sea level rise, and freshwater scarcity caused by drought and rainfall variations. This resilience allows open-water IMTA systems to maintain water quality (Ahmed et al., 2016) [66] .

Improved utilization of ingredients

Dietary fiber and anti-nutrients in the components have an impact on feed intake and digestibility. Increasing feed conversion efficiency and optimizing nutrient usage are important tactics for adjusting to shifting climate conditions. Techniques including solid-state fermentation, adding exogenous enzymes, soaking, and protein extraction can be used to increase the use of plant-based components (Fawole et al., 2023) [63] . The use of Chaetomium globosum for leafmeal fermentation led to increased feed efficiency and development in rohu fingerlings (Meshram et al., 2018) [67] . The utilization of nutrients was improved when Labeo rohita fingerlings were fed a diet that in-cluded 0.1% exogenous enzymes (xylanase and cellulase) in leaf meal-based fish feed (Maiti et al., 2019) [68] .

Selecting species through genetic means

Variability in genetics is a primary factor distinguishing plastic responses, such as variations in reproductive timing and growth rates, among families, populations, or within species (Hutchings, 2011) [69] . Extended exposure to stressors induced by climate change can trigger phenotypic alterations, and the adaptability of stress tolerance transforms into acclimation. This process may subsequently give rise to local adjustment or acceptance (Kassahun et al., 2012) [70] . There is evidence indicating that genetic changes in response to temperature fluctuations can be adaptive. According to Healy et al., (2012) [71] , killifish can develop a greater tolerance to heat when they are repeatedly exposed to heated temperatures. Fish genetic selection may be based on climate change and utilize traits like heat tolerance, feed conversion efficiency, and thermal sensitivity for growth to provide quantifiable selection responses (Kavanagh et al., 2010) [72] .

Biofloc

Biofloc technology (BFT) is a new and developing approach in fish farming that aims to achieve sustainable aquaculture (Dauda et al., 2018) [73] . According to Sgnaulin et al. (2018) [74] , BFT is a method for maintaining water quality that requires little to no water exchange. It works by cultivating and regulating heterotrophic bacteria within the culture system. Preserving a balanced carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C/N) is the cornerstone of biofloc systems, since it facilitates the development of heterotrophic bacteria. According to Dauda et al. (2017) [75] , these bacteria produce nitrogen gas out of the system and use ammonia for growth. It is a sustainable alternative culture systems, as it efficiently recycles and reuses nutrients within the system (Kumar et al., 2017) [76] . With BFT, operators can boost stocking density for mature stock, all the while reducing waste and conserving water (McCusker et al., 2023) [77] . It has been suggested that dried bioflocs be used in aquafeeds to substitute of fishmeal or soybean meal (Hargreaves, 2013) [78] . In summary, BFT maintains water quality by utilizing ammonia to produce microbial proteins, which serve as food for the cultured fish. This results in increased efficiency in feed utilization, decreased food conversion ratio, and reduced feeding costs in sustainable eco-friendly aquaculture.

Dietary immunostimulants against challenged climatic conditions

In response to climate change, it is imperative to embrace novel strategies to address emerging challenges. Such strategies may encompass the utilization of locally available, nutritionally balanced feed ingredients (Tacon et al., 2011) [8] . Using alternative climate-resilient crops with desirable nutritional properties is another potential strategy (Hall, 2015) [5] . An effective strategy to mitigate problems caused by climate change involves the utilization of immunoceuticals, antioxidants, and anti-stress compounds (Fawole et al., 2023) [63] . Under changing climatic conditions, dietary immunostimulants could offer protective effects in fish (Wang et al., 2017) [79] . The health of African catfish, Clarius. gariepinus, appears to benefit most when fed fishmeal or soy-meal at varying temperatures, exhibiting optimal results amid thermal stress conditions (Al-Deghayem, 2019) [80] . The addition of dietary supplements such as grape seed extract, known for its antioxidant properties, and sea lettuce Ulva lactuca, enhanced the survival rate of Haliotis laevigata under high-temperature conditions (Lange et al., 2014) [81] . Adjusting the mineral ratio of Mg to Ca in the diet could enhance the ability to cope with acidification in the Paracentrotus lividus (Asnaghi et al., 2014) [82] . Feeding Lates calcarifer with Stearidonic and γ-linolenic acid has demonstrated an improvement in low-temperature tolerance (Alhazzaa et al., 2013) [83] . To adapt to rising temperatures in mirror carp C. carpio, an adaptive strategy involved increasing the dietary protein level, which led to elevated immune response, antioxidant enzymes, and gene expression of heat shock proteins (Huang et al., 2015) [84] . The stress induced by low temperatures in seabass can be alleviated by an antioxidant product derived from honeybees, known as propolis (Šegvić-Bubić et al. 2013) [85] . Nutritional bioenergetic models have been created for various aquaculture species, including Oncorhynchus mykiss (Hua et al., 2009) [86] , Oreochromis niloticus (Chowdhury et al., 2013) [87] , and Lates calcarifer (Glencross et al., 2012) [88] . These models are designed to calculate the ideal digestible protein and energy requirements under varying temperature conditions. O. niloticus exhibited enhanced performance when exposed to cold temperatures and fed fish oil (Corrêa et al., 2017) [89] , also White but-ton mushroom is recommended to cope with heat stress (Dawood et al., 2020) [90] . A correlation was discovered between the presence of 0.5% Tryptophan and the suppression of stress induced by temperature fluctuations in O. mykiss (Hoseini et al., 2020) [91] . Supplementing diets with riboflavin at 5 mg/kg and se-nanoparticles at 0.5 mg/kg could potentially provide protection to Pangasianodon hypophthalmus against thermal stress (Kumar et al., 2019) [92] . A foundational diet containing 150-200 mg/kg of carotenoids has been observed to boost immune responses to disease and confer resistance to high-temperature stress in Yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco) (Liu et al., 2019) [93] .

Case studies of climate-proof fish feed

Numerous case studies have reported the utilization of insect meals to convert organic waste into protein, demonstrating a lower environmental footprint compared to traditional feed ingredients. As an example, Ynsect, a France based company, specializes in mealworm farming for the aquaculture feed production (Thévenot et al., 2018) [94] . Protix in the Netherlands specializes in the large-scale production of Black Soldier Fly larvae (Xu et al., 2020) [95] . BioMar in Denmark focuses on the development of plant-based feed formulations aimed at increasing the evident nutrient digestibility of soybean meal in fish feed (Dalsgaard et al., 2012) [52] . Marketable solutions for decreasing food waste are provided by insect-based bioconversion; these solutions are energy and space-efficient, ecologically benign, offer genuine market and commercial opportunities, and produce feed conversion ratios higher than those of conventional livestock (Li et al., 2013; Van Huis et al., 2017) [96,97] . The ISBR (Integrated Sequential Biorefinery) diversification plan has been put into practice during the last ten years by the University of New Brunswick's Canadian IMTA Network (CIMTAN) in cooperation with Cooke Aquaculture Inc., an industrial partner in Atlantic Canada. And they start integrating salmon, mussels, and seaweed farming system (Chopin, 2015) [98] . Cultivation technologies and harvesting methods, along with breeding practices, can be enhanced to improve the cost-efficiency of biofilters, particularly in the emerging European seaweed cultivation industry (Holdt et al., 2014) [99] . Numerous researchers have investigated non-conventional feed ingredients that can assist fish in coping with the stress induced by changed climate conditions. Many of them have good impacts on growth and survival of fishes.

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110. How to cite this article: Gavhane SV, Betsy CJ, Kaviyarasi I, Singh SK, Debbarma S, Bhusare S. Addressing climate change effects on aquaculture nutrition: A review of fish feed ingredients and adaptation approaches: a review. International Journal of Advanced Biochemistry Research. 2026;10(9):577-589. doi: http s://www.doi.org/10.33545/26174693.2026.v10.i9.w.10092