Pharmacological perspective of herbal galactogogues in dairy animals

Introduction

Animal husbandry plays a major role in Indian agriculture, particularly for small and marginal farmers and landless rural households, by offering income and livelihood options (Singh et al., 2019) [40] . The majority of the country's milk production comes from cattle, buffaloes, and goats. Despite India's leading position in global milk production, dairy animal productivity remains below its potential. Poor nutrition, inadequate feeding, disease, and environmental and physiological stress are among the major factors restricting animal health and milk yield. (Saxena et al., 2020) [37] . Concerns have also been raised about the use of synthetic hormones and pharmacological drugs to increase milk yield, as improper use can disrupt endocrine balance, ovarian function and reproductive health in dairy animals. Increasing concern over antibiotic and hormonal residues, as well as the need for safe and natural livestock products, has stimulated the use of herbal feed additives as potential options for improving rumen function, nutrient utilization, animal health and milk production. (Baig and Bhagwat, 2009) [5] . The increasing demand for milk has encouraged the exploration of galactagogues, which are substances used to promote or enhance milk secretion and improve lactational performance in dairy animals. Galactagogues are natural or pharmacological agents, including herbs, dietary supplements and drugs, that may promote, maintain or enhance milk secretion in humans and dairy animals (Nasihin, 2025) [27] . Herbal galactagogues, particularly plant-based preparations, have received attention as a natural approach to lactation improvement, owing to their various bioactive constituents, nutritional benefits and possible medicinal use in both cattle and people. (Bora et al., 2019) [7] . Their effects are linked to several endocrine regulators, most notably prolactin (PRL), but hormones and mediators such as growth hormone, cortisol, insulin, leptin, estrogen, progesterone, oxytocin, thyrotropinreleasing hormone (TRH) and recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST) may also influence mammary development and milk production. Herbal preparations may help boost milk production in women and dairy animals, such as cows and goats, and are thus becoming increasingly important in human lactation and the dairy business.

Lactation Physiology

Lactogenesis refers to the development of the mammary gland's capacity to produce and secrete milk, involving functional maturation of the mammary alveolar cells and occurring in two stages: secretory initiation and secretory activation (Pillay and Davis, 2023) [32] . Stage I (secretory initiation) occurs during late pregnancy, when mammary alveolar cells differentiate and develop a limited ability to synthesize milk components. Stage II (secretory activation) begins around parturition and continues during the early postpartum period, marked by a rapid increase in milk synthesis and secretion. This transition is accompanied by greater cellular activity, including increases in the RNA-to-DNA ratio, ribosome number, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria within the alveolar cells (Schmidt, 1971; Tucker, 1974; Forsyth, 1983) [38,42,18] . Galactopoiesis is the process of maintaining milk secretion after lactation begins. In dairy cows, milk production usually reaches its peak 2-8 weeks after calving and then gradually decreases. Frequent milk removal helps sustain milk production (Pillay and Davis, 2023) [32] . The maintenance of lactation depends on the coordinated action of growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), glucocorticoids, insulin, thyroid hormones, parathyroid hormones and prolactin (Hannan et al., 2023) [19] .

Herbal Galactogogues

Studies on plant-derived galactagogues suggest that several herbal preparations may support milk synthesis in cattle, buffaloes, goats and humans, with many showing a favorable safety profile when used at appropriate doses. Their potential use as economical therapeutic agents and feed supplements in dairy animals has therefore received increasing attention (Penagos et al., 2014) [31] . The pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, optimal dosage and safety of herbal galactagogues remain inadequately studied, warranting further research across domestic animals and humans (Abascal and Yarnell, 2008) [1] .

Mechanisms of Herbal Galactagogues

The lactogenic activity of some herbal galactagogues may involve phytoestrogenic and prolactin-mediated pathways. Phytoestrogens can exert estrogen-like effects and may influence estrogen receptors, prolactin receptor (PRLR) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), thereby promoting mammary epithelial cell activity and the synthesis of milk components such as casein and lactose. Estrogen signalling may also enhance prolactin production through estrogen receptor pathways and modulation of dopamine D2 receptor-cAMP/PKA signaling, ultimately supporting mammary gland function and milk secretion ( [43,24,31] . These mechanisms should be regarded as proposed pathways, as the relative contribution of individual estrogen receptor subtypes, prolactin signaling and growth-factor pathways may vary among different phytoestrogens, animal species and physiological states.

Shatavari (Asparagus racemosus)

Table 1: Taxonomic Classification of Asparagus racemosus (Pareek et al., 2017) [28] . Asparagus racemosus commonly known as Shatavari, Satavar or Shatmuli, is a medicinal plant traditionally used in indigenous medicine, with its tuberous roots being the principal medicinal part. The roots contain several bioactive constituents, particularly steroidal saponins (shatavarins I-IV), isoflavones, racemosol, polysaccharides and mucilage, along with various vitamins and minerals. These phytoconstituents are considered responsible for its diverse pharmacological activities and support its traditional use as a herbal galactagogue (Chawla et al., 2011) [8] . Asparagus racemosus supplementation has been reported to promote mammary gland development, including increased mammary gland weight and development of lobular and alveolar tissues. Its galactagogue activity may involve neuroendocrine modulation, particularly stimulation of prolactin and ACTH release. Bioactive steroidal saponins, including shatavarosides A and B and filiasparoside-C, have been proposed to contribute to these effects by influencing pituitary-adrenal and mammary gland function, thereby supporting mammary epithelial differentiation and milk production (Kumar et al., 2023) [25] . In a feeding trial, supplementation of Shatavari at 50 g/day along with concentrate for 60 days improved milk yield in lactating cattle and buffaloes. Milk production increased by 12.72% (1.32±0.15 kg/day) in cows and 9.90% (0.80±0.34 kg/day) in buffaloes compared with the respective controls. The supplementation was also reported to be economically beneficial, with an estimated increase in income of ₹7.49 per animal per day, supporting the potential of A. racemosus as a practical herbal galactagogue in dairy animals (Tanwar et al., 2008) [41] . Saini et al. (2018) [35] and Choudhary et al. (2024) [10] reported that supplementation with Asparagus racemosus root powder enhanced dry matter intake and milk yield in lactating cows. Improvements were also observed in milk fat, protein, lactose, solid-not-fat and total solids indicating its potential to improve both milk production and composition as a herbal galactagogue. [9,44] . Fenugreek may promote lactation through multiple endocrine pathways, including modulation of the insulin-GH/IGF-1 axis, which may support mammary nutrient utilization and milk-synthesis processes. Its reported effects on pituitary oxytocin may additionally facilitate milk ejection, while changes in prolactin secretion observed in some studies suggest a possible role in lactogenic endocrine regulation. Nevertheless, the precise molecular basis of fenugreek-induced lactogenesis remains incompletely understood (Penagos Tabares et al., 2014) [31] . Raw fenugreek seeds have a characteristic bitter taste, mainly attributed to their saponin content, which may affect their palatability and food acceptability. India is both a major producer and consumer of fenugreek, where the seeds are widely used for culinary purposes as well as in traditional medicinal practices (Agrawal et al., 2015) [2] . Studies in dairy animals indicate that fenugreek supplementation may improve lactational performance, although responses vary among species. Degirmencioglu et al. (2016) [13] reported increased feed intake and milk yield in Anatolian water buffaloes fed ground fenugreek seeds, while Balgees et al. (2013) [6] observed improved appetite, hormonal changes and milk production in dairy goats without altering milk composition. impinella anisum L., commonly known as anise, is an aromatic herb widely cultivated for its culinary and medicinal applications. The fruits (commonly referred to as seeds) are the principal plant material used traditionally and have been valued for their carminative, digestive, expectorant and antimicrobial properties (Shojaii and Abdollah, 2012) [39] . The essential oil of Pimpinella anisum is primarily composed of trans-anethole (93.9%), while estragole (2.4%) constitutes another important component. The lactogenic effects traditionally attributed to anise have been linked to its possible influence on the dopaminergic pathway, with anethole suggested to interfere with dopamine-mediated inhibition of prolactin secretion (Shojaii and Abdollah, 2012; Foong et al., 2020) [39,17] . Dietary supplementation with 50 g anise seeds/head/day, from six weeks prepartum through 15 weeks postpartum, improved nutrient digestibility and significantly increased total and daily milk yield, along with milk fat, lactose and total solids in lactating buffaloes (Sallam et al., 2018) [36] . In lactating buffaloes, dietary inclusion of 50 g anise seeds/head/day was associated with better nutrient digestibility and feeding value, increased feed intake and milk production and improved economic efficiency of the ration (El-Garhy and Moustafa, 2005) [14] . In experimental studies, Pimpinella anisum seeds have shown potential lactogenic effects. However, the lactogenic response to P. anisum may differ across animal species, as supplementation with anisecontaining diets did not produce significant improvements in milk intake or growth performance in lactating rabbits (Shojaii and Abdollah, 2012) [39] . . The seeds contain several bioactive constituents, particularly thymoquinone, thymol, hymohydroquinone, carvacrol, nigellidine, nigellicine and fixed oils, which contribute to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and immunomodulatory effects (Ahmad et al., 2013; Dalli et al., 2021) [3,12] . In lactating rats, administration of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of N. sativa seeds increased milk production by approximately 31.3% and 37.6%, respectively, compared with the control group, with a corresponding increase in pup weight gain (Hosseinzadeh et al., 2013) [21] . Dietary supplementation with N. sativa seeds has been reported to increase milk yield in lactating buffaloes and goats (El-Nor et al., 2007; El-Saadany et al., 2008) [15,16] . The lactogenic effect of N. sativa may be related to increased prolactin secretion through modulation of dopaminergic pathways; however, its exact mechanism of action has not yet been established (Hannan et al., 2021) [20] .

Taxonomic Rank Classification

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum -graecum)

Anise Seed (Pimpinella anisum)

Black Cumin (Nigella sativa)

Cost Effectiveness Analysis

In lactating Surti buffaloes, supplementation with a polyherbal galactagogue increased total milk yield by 14.24% and improved net returns by ₹339.90 per animal per month, along with a higher cost-benefit ratio than the control (Patel et al., 2013) [29] . Similarly, feeding an equal proportion combination of Shatavari (Asparagus racemosus), Jivanti (Leptadenia reticulata), and fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum) at 60 g/cow/day increased milk yield and daily returns in lactating Kankrej cows, with a 24.89% higher daily return than the control (Patel et al., 2017) [30] . In another study, Shatavari root powder supplemented at 50 g/animal/day increased milk yield by 19.67% and improved daily income by ₹50.50 per animal in lactating buffaloes (Meena et al., 2020) [26] .

Hordeum vulgare + Melissa officinalis

A randomized controlled trial in mothers of preterm infants found greater expressed milk volume with the barley malt-lemon balm preparation than placebo over the study period.

Lepidium sativum

Daily administration of 2.5 g seeds increased expressed milk volume after 28 days in hypogalactic mothers compared with controls, with no adverse drug effects reported.

Ranade and Mudgalkar, (2022) [34] Lettuce

Lactuca sativa

Lettuce syrup increased breast-milk volume at several time points in mothers of preterm infants

(2023) [22] Moringa Moringa oleifera Systematic review of 8 randomized trials found increased milk volume (up to 400 mL/day) and higher prolactin levels; however, longer and better-controlled studies are still needed.

Ammar et al. (2025) [4] Fenugreek

Trigonella foenumgraecum

Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials found a significant overall effect of plant-based galactagogues on milk volume, with fenugreek showing a significant subgroup effect.

Jain and Tewari, (2026) [23] Silymarin + goat's rue

Silybum marianum + Galega officinalis

Systematic review found low-certainty evidence of increased milk volume at day 7 with silymarin phytosomes combined with Galega.

Cragg et al. (2026)

Conclusion

Overall, herbal galactagogues appear to have the ability to enhance milk production and lactational function in dairy animals. Shatavari, fenugreek, anise, and black cumin have all showed positive impacts on milk yield, milk composition, and economic returns in various trials. These effects may be attributed to changes in prolactin secretion, endocrine regulation, mammary gland activity, and food consumption. However, differences in plant preparations, dosage, animal species and study design make direct comparison difficult. Further well-designed studies are needed to establish their effective doses, mechanisms of action, safety and long-term benefits in dairy animals.

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