Effect of different growing environments on growth and yield of rice crop under various establishment methods

Introduction

Globally, rice is the most demanded staple crop. Millions in India rely heavily on rice for both nutritional and income sustainability. This triggers its widespread acreage among major cereals in a variety of agro-ecological zones and ecologies. These diverse rice-growing environments include water-logged to rainfed uplands, jhums to deep water, high 8 to arid temperatures, and flood-prone to drylands. Developing efficient soil management techniques requires an understanding of the dynamics of these carbon pools. By using techniques like mechanical weeding, young seedlings, and alternate wetting and drying, the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), for example, has shown great promise in increasing soil carbon stocks. These techniques enhance microbial activity, aeration, and root development, which also helps in enhancing carbon sequestration. Different rice production techniques can significantly influence soil carbon status, stocks and dynamics. According to Smith and collaborators in 2018, agricultural soils changes in SOC are determined by the cumulative contributions of organic carbon (OC) from the crop, and when there are high returns driven by nitrogenous fertilizers and the fallow frequency is low, it can Favor an increase in SOC. Nevertheless, this is a complex and dynamic process in 2013, Saljnikov and collaborators pointed out that 55 to 70% of the carbon in organic residues reaching the soil is lost due to gaseous emissions into the atmosphere, and 5 to 15% is incorporated to the microbial biomass of the soil. The balance between inputs and outputs of organic carbon in the soil constitutes an assessment methodology to identify its functioning as a sink or as a carbon emitter in the ecosystem, allowing the evaluation and comparison of the dynamics of organic carbon in soils under different use and management systems. Collectively, the literature across Asia and temperate rice regions demonstrates that continuous flooded rice paddies have superior SOC stocks compared to upland systems. However, maximizing carbon benefits and soil health relies on sustainable practices: conservation tillage, residue management, organic amendments, and terrain/landscape adaptations. These strategies effectively enhance SOC pools, stabilize carbon, and contribute to both climate mitigation and long-term soil fertility.

Methodology

Experimental site A field experiment was initiated at the ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research farm in the Kharif season of 2024 on a deep black clayey vertisols (Typic pellustert) at the IIRR Rice Research farm, Hyderabad (17 0 19″ N latitude, 78 0 23″ E longitude, 542 m altitude with mean annual precipitation of 750 mm). The plot selected for the purpose was A-3, A-5 and B-7. The plot detailed characteristics features are given in the table. Initial and post-harvest soil samples were collected prior to the beginning of the studies and depicted in the table. All the agronomic parameters under different rice establishment methods were recorded. The experimental site was medium land and altitude. In addition, the soils are predominantly vertisols with pH of 8.2 to 8.5. The experimental plot had assured irrigation facility coupled with uniform topography and good drainage facility. Hyderabad's climate is tropical characterized by dry, hot summers and mild winters.summer temparatures can be very high exceeding 40c. The warmest month is May, while the coolest is January. Long-term weather data indicated a mean maximum temperature of 30.57 °C, a mean minimum temperature of 21.22 °C, and an average rainfall of 595 mm. More than three-fourth of the total rainfall is received through south-west monsoon during July to September.

Sowing and transplanting

The rice crop was sown on first week of July 2024, using a seeding rate of 30 kg ha -1 . Seedlings were transplanted on July 30 th with a spacing of cm between rows and 15 cm within rows. [3,4] , Rathod et al. (2021) [9] and Parmar et al. (2022) [6] .

No. of tillers/square meter

The data presented in table (2) revealed that the number of tiller/square meter of rice crop significantly affected by different types of rice establishment methods and that varied from 229 to 299. Among them, significantly increased number of tiller/square meter of rice crop (299) was observed with Transplanted Rice (TP) method followed by System of rice Intensification method (285) and Direct seeded Rice (DSR) method (271) compared to control (229).

The increase in number of tiller/square meter in Direct seeded Rice (DSR), System of rice Intensification and Transplanted Rice (TP) was to the extent of 18.3, 24.5 and 30.6% respectively over control. These results are in conformity with earlier reported by Bharamappanavara et al.

(2020) [1] , Kale et al. (2021) [3,4] and Gorlapalli et al. (2022) [2] .

Panicles per m 2

The data presented in table (2) revealed that the panicles square meter of rice crop significantly affected by different types of establishment methods varied from 157.8 to 228.0. Among them, significantly increased panicles square meter of rice crop (228.0) was observed with Direct seeded Rice (DSR) method followed by (224) System of rice Intensification method and Transplanted Rice (TP) method (193.3) compared to control (157.8). The increase in panicles square meter of rice crop in Transplanted Rice (TP), System of rice Intensification and Direct seeded Rice (DSR) was to the extent of 22.5, 42 and 45% respectively over control. These results are in conformity with earlier reported by Patel et al. (2025) [7,8] and Kumar et al. (2025) [5]

SPAD Value

The data presented in table 4 [7,8] and Kumar et al. (2025) [5] [11] , Sahoo et al. (2022) [10] , Zoureen et al. (2025) [13] and Patel et al.

Straw Yield

The data presented in table (3) revealed that the straw yield (t ha -1 ) of rice crop significantly affected by different types of establishment methods and that varied from 3.93 to 5.28 (t ha -1 ). Among them, significantly higher straw yield of rice crop (5.28 t ha -1 ) was observed with values recorded in Transplanted Rice (TP) method followed by Direct seeded Rice (DSR) method (5.50 t ha -1 ) and System of rice Intensification method (5.28 q ha -1 ) compared to control (3.93 t ha -1 ). The increase in straw yield (t ha -1 ) of rice crop in System of rice Intensification, Direct seeded Rice (DSR) and Transplanted Rice (TP) was to the extent of 7.1%, 11.6% and 17.2% respectively over control. These results are in conformity with earlier reported by Srilatha et al.

(2019) [11] , Sahoo et al. (2022) [10] , Zoureen et al. (2025) [13] and Kumar et al. (2025) [5]

References

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