Socio-economic profile and adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices among women farmers

Introduction

Agriculture remains a major source of livelihood in rural India and women make a substantial contribution to crop production, livestock management, post-harvest operations and other farm activities. However, women farmers often have limited access to land, credit, extension services, improved inputs and agricultural information. According to the FAO (2023) [5] , women account for a significant share of the agricultural workforce globally, yet continue to face gender-based gaps in access to productive resources and services. Climate variability has further increased the vulnerability of small and marginal farming households through irregular rainfall, rising temperatures, drought and other production risks. The IPCC (2022) [6] identified South Asia as highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, particularly in agriculture. In this context, Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) has gained importance as an approach that seeks to increase productivity, strengthen resilience to climate change and, where possible, reduce greenhouse-gas emissions (FAO, 2013) [4] . Practices such as crop diversification, drought-tolerant varieties, water conservation, mulching, integrated nutrient management and conservation agriculture can help women farmers manage climatic risks and sustain farm productivity. Women farmers are therefore important stakeholders in promoting climate-resilient agricultural systems. Evidence suggests that improving women's access to agricultural resources, information and decision-making can contribute substantially to farm productivity and household welfare. The FAO (2023) [5] estimated that closing gender gaps in agricultural productivity and wages could increase global GDP by nearly $1 trillion and reduce food insecurity for millions of people. Similarly, the World Bank (2022) [9] emphasized that climate-smart practices can improve the resilience and productivity of smallholder farming systems when supported by appropriate technology, finance and extension services. In Madhya Pradesh, where many farming households depend strongly on rainfall, adoption of climate-smart practices is particularly relevant. However, factors such as small landholdings, limited income, inadequate irrigation, lack of technical knowledge and restricted extension contact may constrain adoption among women farmers. Therefore, the present study entitled "Socio-Economic Profile and Adoption of Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices among Women Farmers" was undertaken to examine the socio-economic and farm characteristics of women farmers, document the climatesmart agricultural practices adopted by them and identify the major constraints affecting their adoption. The findings may provide useful direction for strengthening genderwww.extensionjournal.com responsive extension programmes and promoting climateresilient agriculture.

Material and Methods

The study considered 15 independent variables covering the socio-economic, farm, institutional and empowerment characteristics of women farmers. These included education, age, marital status, family type, occupation, landholding, farming experience, annual income, social participation, major crops grown, irrigation facility, training exposure, awareness and knowledge, participation and empowerment. The practices adopted by women farmers were considered the dependent variable. These variables were selected to understand the factors influencing the adoption of climatesmart agricultural practices among women farmers. Primary data were collected through a well-structured and pre-tested interview schedule developed in accordance with the objectives of the study. The schedule was pre-tested among a small group of women farmers to ensure clarity, reliability and suitability. Personal interviews were conducted with selected respondents after explaining the purpose of the study and establishing rapport. Secondary information was collected from government reports, research publications, journals and other relevant sources related to climate-smart agriculture and women's participation in farming. The collected data were systematically classified, tabulated and analyzed using frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation and chi-square test. Frequency and percentage were used to describe the distribution of respondents, while mean and standard deviation were used to summarize the data and measure variation. The chi-square test was employed to examine the association between selected independent variables and the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices. These statistical techniques facilitated systematic interpretation of the findings and helped in drawing meaningful conclusions regarding the adoption of climate-smart practices among women farmers.

Results and Discussion

The study considered 15 independent variables, namely education, age, marital status, family type, main occupation, size of landholding, farming experience, annual income, social participation, major crops grown, irrigation facility, training exposure, level of awareness and knowledge, extent of participation and level of empowerment of women farmers. The adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices by women farmers was considered as the dependent variable (Table 1).

Socio-economic profile of the farmer

The data presented in Table 1 reveal that the majority of women farmers had a medium level of socio-personal and educational characteristics. Regarding education, the highest proportion had high-school education (25.83%), followed by middle-level education (22.50%). The majority of respondents were middle-aged (55.83%), while 20.83 per cent were young and 23.34 per cent were old. A substantial majority (90.00%) were married and 60.00 per cent belonged to nuclear families. Farming was the main occupation of 48.33 per cent of women farmers, followed by agricultural labour (25.83%) and livestock rearing (17.50%).

With respect to farm characteristics, 35.00 per cent of respondents had marginal landholdings, followed by small holdings (31.67%) and semi-medium holdings (22.50%). Farming experience was predominantly medium (47.50%), while 50.83 per cent of women farmers had a medium level of annual income. Social participation was also mainly medium (53.34%). Regarding crop diversity, 49.17 per cent of respondents cultivated 3-4 major crops, indicating a moderate level of crop diversification. Irrigation facilities were available to 43.33 per cent of respondents, while 30.83 per cent had partial irrigation and 25.84 per cent depended on rainfed conditions. The findings further indicate that 38.33 per cent of women farmers had participated in agricultural training 2-3 times, followed by 24.17 per cent who had attended training more than three times. Awareness and knowledge regarding climate-smart agricultural practices were predominantly medium (51.67%), followed by high (27.50%) and low (20.83%). Similarly, participation in agricultural decisionmaking was mainly medium (54.17%), while 22.50 per cent had low and 23.33 per cent had high participation. These results indicate that a considerable proportion of women farmers had moderate exposure to climate-smart agricultural knowledge and training. Regarding empowerment, nearly half of the respondents (48.33%) had a medium level of empowerment, while 25.84 per cent had high and 25.83 per cent had low empowerment. Overall, the findings suggest that women farmers possessed moderate levels of education, farm experience, income, social participation, climate-smart awareness, decisionmaking participation and empowerment. Strengthening women-oriented extension programmes, practical training, access to irrigation and climate-resilient technologies could further enhance their participation and adoption of climatesmart agricultural practices. The findings of the present study are supported by earlier research. Doss (2018) [3] reported that women make substantial contributions to agricultural production but continue to face limitations in access to productive resources and decision-making. Meinzen-Dick et al. (2014) [8] emphasized that improved access to information, training and institutional support strengthens women's capacity to adopt agricultural technologies. Similarly, FAO (2023) [5] highlighted that women farmer face persistent gaps in access to land, finance, extension and productive resources. Aryal et al. (2020) [2] found that access to extension services, education and farm resources influenced farmers' adoption of climate-smart practices. Jost et al. (2016) [7] also reported that women's participation and access to agricultural information are important for strengthening climate-change adaptation strategies.

The climate smart agricultural practices adopted by women farmers

The data indicate that the majority of women farmers (50.83%) had a medium level of adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices, followed by 25.00% with a high level and 24.17% with a low level, indicating moderate adoption overall. The finding is supported by Jost et al. (2016) [7] , who reported that women farmers adopted various climatechange adaptation practices but faced resource and information constraints. Aryal et al. (2020) [2] also found www.extensionjournal.com that access to extension services, information and farm resources influenced the adoption of climate-smart practices. Similarly, Abdullah et al. (2022) [1] observed that women farmers generally showed moderate adoption of climate-resilient agricultural practices, with training and institutional support improving adoption. These studies support the present finding that women farmers require improved access to knowledge, training and resources to enhance climate-smart agricultural practices. Note: f = Frequency; % = Percentage.

Acknowledgment

The author conveys profound gratitude to the Professor, Department of Technology Transfer, Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramodaya Vishwavidyalaya, Chitrakoot, Satna (M.P.), for his scholarly guidance, intellectual insight, constructive suggestions and unwavering encouragement throughout the course of this research endeavour. His valuable academic supervision and continuous support were instrumental in the successful accomplishment of the study. The author further acknowledges with deep appreciation the cooperation, assistance and valuable contributions of colleagues, field investigators, field assistants and labourers, whose dedicated support during field visits, data collection and other research activities greatly facilitated the completion of the investigation. The author also places on record sincere appreciation for all those who, directly or indirectly, contributed to the successful execution of the research work. Their cooperation, encouragement and timely assistance are gratefully acknowledged and will remain an integral part of the successful completion of this scholarly endeavour.

References

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