E-surveillance of Parthenium hysterophorus L. and associated insect fauna with special reference to Zygogrammabicolorata in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh

Introduction

One of the most aggressive invasive alien weed species in the world is Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae), sometimes referred to as congress grass, carrot weed, or gajarghans. Due to its abundant seed production, quick growth, drought tolerance, wide ecological adaptability, and potent allelopathic qualities, the weed which is native to tropical and subtropical regions of North and South America has successfully spread to Asia, Africa, Australia, and several Pacific nations (Adkins and Shabbir, 2014). The species may quickly establish and dominate both agricultural and non-agricultural ecosystems thanks to its large reproductive capabilities, effective seed distribution, and capacity to colonise damaged habitats. P. hysterophorus was unintentionally brought to India in the middle of the 1950s by tainted imported food grains. Since then, it has spread widely throughout roadsides, wastelands, grazing areas, cultivated fields, orchards, and forest habitats (Sushilkumar& Varshney, 2007; Sushilkumar, 2014) [1, 70, 74] . Currently, the weed is prevalent on around 35 million hectares of land, endangering biodiversity, environmental sustainability, and agricultural output. While allelochemicals generated from various plant sections prevent the germination of seeds and the growth of nearby plant species, dense infestations restrict the growth of native flora through fierce competition for nutrients, moisture, and sunlight (Adkins and Shabbir, 2014). P. hysterophorus causes severe allergic dermatitis, eczema, hay fever, asthma, and respiratory diseases in humans and livestock in addition to causing significant productivity losses in crops and pastures (Kololgi et al., 1997). Additionally, it increases the incidence of disease in cultivated crops by acting as a substitute host for a number of economically significant plant viruses, such as tobacco leaf curl virus, mungbean yellow mosaic virus, okra yellow vein mosaic virus, tobacco streak virus, and tomato leaf curl virus (Singh and Singh, 1999;Rao et al., 2003;Ansari et al., 2004). To suppress parthenium, a variety of management techniques have been used, including chemical herbicides, mechanical removal, and cultural activities. These techniques work well in certain situations, but they are labour-intensive, expensive, and frequently inappropriate for widespread infestations in grazing areas, roadsides, and wastelands (Krishnamurthy et al., 1977). As a result, biological control has become one of the most inexpensive, environmentally safe, and sustainable methods for managing this invasive species over the long term (Dhileepan et al., 2000a). The most effective defoliating insect among the biological control agents used against P. hysterophorus is the Mexican beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). After thorough host-specificity testing, the beetle which is native to Mexico was brought to India in 1983 (Jayanth, 1987). Parthenium leaves, tender shoots, flower buds, and inflorescences are the main food source for both larvae and adults, which causes severe defoliation, decreased flowering, and a notable suppression of weed growth (Annadurai, 1990;Jayanth and Nagarkatti, 1997). Numerous studies have been conducted on the biology, eating habits, laboratory mass multiplication, and seasonal population dynamics of Z. bicolorata (Jayanth et al., 1996;Kulkarni et al., 2000;Dhiman and Bhargava, 2005). However, extended diapause under unfavourable environmental circumstances frequently lowers beetle numbers, enabling quick weed recovery following beneficial rainfall (Jayanth et al., 1997). However, Z. bicolorata's robust establishment has produced significant financial gains. According to Sushilkumar (2006), the beetle prevented the growth of parthenium over almost eight million hectares in India and saved almost Rs. 10 million in pesticide costs at Jabalpur alone. The insect fauna linked to P. hysterophorus in various parts of the world has been documented by numerous researchers. Numerous phytophagous insects and pathogens targeting parthenium were reported by Bennett (1977) and McFadyen (1979) after conducting extensive surveys in North and South America. Many of these insects showed significant potential for traditional biological control programs. In North America, McClay et al. (1995) identified 262 phytophagous arthropod species linked to P. hysterophorus, including a number of host-specific insects that were later assessed as biological control agents.Mealybugs, aphids, and mites linked to parthenium were recorded in India by Char et al. (1975), Puttaswamy et al. (1976), and Rajulu et al. (1976), while Kumar et al. (1979) described a varied collection of insects, mites, and illnesses attacking the weed in Tamil Nadu. Although several related insects were polyphagous and also targeted commercially significant crops, their analysis discovered stem-boring beetles including Hypothenemus eruditus and Oberea spp. that severely damaged the weed. The knowledge of insect communities related with parthenium has been broadened by subsequent studies. Parthenium in southern India was severely infested with Leptocentrus taurus and Orthezia insignis, according to Thangavelu (1980) and Srikanth et al. (1988). According to Shenhmar et al.'s (1998) investigation of Z. bicolorata's distribution in Punjab and nearby states, beetle populations remained comparatively low in the field, which limited the effectiveness of weed suppression. In the Agra region, Kulshretha and Kumar (2013) tracked the seasonal prevalence of Z. bicolorata and found that beetle abundance varied significantly across years. In a similar vein, Dhiman and Bhargava (2005) noted that beetle incidence peaked during the monsoon season, especially in August, underscoring the impact of weather on beetle establishment and efficacy [39, 63, 60, 6, 40, 16, 29, 5, 36, 38, 42, 17] . Although P. hysterophorus is widely found in Chhattisgarh, especially in roadsides, horticulture fields, agricultural lands, and uncultivated regions, systematic data on its distribution, related insect fauna, and natural enemies is still scarce. Furthermore, the area lacks thorough GPS-based esurveillance investigations that document parthenium infection and related insect variety under various land conditions. Understanding the ecological relationships between the weed and its natural enemies is crucial for creating biological weed management plans that are regionspecific. In order to document the occurrence, abundance, and distribution of Zygogramma bicolorata and other related insect fauna, an e-surveillance of Parthenium hysterophorus and associated weed flora during the kharif and rabi seasons in various blocks of Raipur district, Chhattisgarh, was conducted. The study's conclusions could offer useful baseline data for bolstering biological control initiatives and encouraging sustainable parthenium management in the agro-ecological circumstances of central India.

Materials and Methods

Study Area: The current study used GPS-based esurveillance to measure the prevalence of Parthenium hysterophorus L. and its related insect fauna in the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh, India, during the kharif and rabi seasons of 2016 and 2017. Based on the frequency of parthenium contamination, four administrative blocks Arang, Dharsiwa, Tilda, and Abhanpur were chosen. At 21.16° N latitude and 81.36° E longitude, Raipur district is located in Chhattisgarh's central plains. Its average elevation is 298 meters above mean sea level. Arang (21°11′41.46′ N, 81°58′11.44′ E), Dharsiwa (21°24′29.46′ N, 81°40′19.16′ E), Tilda (21°33′04.88′ N, 81°47′51.72′ E), and Abhanpur (21°03′14.98′ N, 81°45′04.87′ E). Parthenium hysterophorus may thrive and expand in the area because of its dry sub-humid tropical environment, which is marked by distinct rainy (kharif) and winter (rabi) seasons.

Selection of Study Sites

Based on the prevalence of parthenium infestation, five villages were chosen from each of the four blocks. The villages that were chosen were:

Arang: Rico, Umariya, Sendh, Parshada, and Palaud Tilda: Neora, Dondekala, Murra, Tulsi, and Dondekhurd; Dharsiwa: Serikheri, Jora, Temri, Dharampura, and Banrasi Rakhi, Nardaha, Tekari, Rakhi-2, and Kurud in Abhanpur Five typical farmers' fields were chosen at random inside each hamlet, yielding 25 sampling locations per block and 100 sampling locations throughout the study region.

E-surveillance of Parthenium and Associated Insect Fauna

In order to record the presence of Parthenium hysterophorus, related weed flora, and insect fauna, a GPSassisted field survey was carried out in 2016 and 2017 throughout both the kharif and rabi seasons. To capture the spatial heterogeneity in weed infestation and insect abundance, observations were made from three different land situations: highland, midland, and lowland. To record observations, a 1 m x 1 m quadrat was randomly put at each sample position. A Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver was used to record each sampling site's geographic coordinates. To identify Parthenium plants, related weed species, and insect fauna, visual observations were combined with a hand magnifying lens. Insect populations linked to the plant were tracked at various phases of growth, and the quantity of Parthenium and related annual and perennial weeds was noted. Aphids, mealybugs, hoppers, semiloopers, caterpillars, spiders, ants, ladybird beetles, predatory bugs, and the biological control agent Mexican beetle (Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister) were among the beneficial and phytophagous insects found. Based on observations from the chosen quadrats, population counts were calculated as the average number of insects per square meter.

Data Collection and Analysis

For highland, midland, and lowland habitats, observations from each sample site were combined independently. For every block, season, and year, the average population of each species of insect was determined. The occurrence and distribution of Parthenium and its related insect fauna in various agro-ecological conditions in the Raipur district were then compared using pooled means across sites and years.

Result & Discussion

The e-surveillance program for parthenium and other related weeds was carried out in four distinct blocks of Raipur, Chhattisgarh: Arang, Dharsiwa, Tilda, and Abhanpur. For this study, weed observations from upland, midland, and lowland areas in one square metre of five locations five farmers' fields under each chosen village during the Kharif and Rabi seasons were recorded using a GPS device and a visual/magnifying glass. To determine the population of insect pests associated at the various key plant stages, parthenium and other related weeds, such as annual and perennial, were observed. Tables 1a, 1b, 1c, and 1d show the observations that were made at regular intervals.

Upland 1.Arang block

In the first year, or 2016, the highest average population of ants (3.87) per square metre was observed, followed by spiders (0.89), while the lowest average population of caterpillars (0.01) per square metre was reported in comparison to the Mexican beetle population (0.80) per square metre at Arang block. In the second year, ants and spiders had the highest number (2.87/sqm), while caterpillars and Mexican beetles had the lowest (0.79/sqm) and canthocona bugs had the lowest (0.04) at Arang block. The highest number of ants (3.37/sqm) and mexican beetles (0.78/sqm) were found in the pooled analysis of two years' worth of data, while the lowest number of Canthocona bugs (0.04) was found in the Arang block. [41, 7, 45] . Insect pests are being used worldwide, particularly in India, to manage invasive and locally related weeds in an environmentally friendly manner, hence lowering the demand for pesticides (Heimpel and Mills, 2017) [24] . Aphids, hoppers, mealy bugs, and a few caterpillars and semiloopers were among the insect pests found on the thirty-seven weed species identified in this study. These insects can be investigated further and used as effective instruments for controlling weeds.

Associated weeds with

Blady grass Imperata cylindrica L.

Conclusion

In the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh, the current study showed that GPS-based e-surveillance is a useful method for tracking the dispersal of Parthenium hysterophorus L. and its related insect fauna across various agro-ecological conditions. On Parthenium, a wide variety of insect species, including herbivorous insects, predators, and natural enemies, were noted. The Mexican beetle (Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister) was the most significant biological control agent linked to the weed and was often seen in all four research blocks. In lowland environments, especially in the Abhanpur block, the beetle population was significantly greater, suggesting good environmental circumstances for its development and activity.While ladybird beetles, predatory insects, and other helpful arthropods were found in comparatively smaller quantities, ants and spiders were also among the predominant insect groups linked to parthenium.

The survey also identified 37 weed species linked to parthenium, which provided habitats for a variety of beneficial and phytophagous insects. The most common herbivorous insects found on the related weed flora were aphids, hoppers, and mealybugs, although ladybird beetles and canthocona bugs were occasionally seen as predators.

These results underline the significance of related weed flora in preserving insect diversity and the ecological complexity of areas dominated by parthenium.

Overall, the study demonstrates that Z. bicolorata is firmly established in the Raipur district and still plays a major role in P. hysterophorus's natural suppression. Spatial differences in beetle abundance between blocks and land conditions, however, suggest that environmental factors affect its efficacy. Developing location-specific biological control techniques, bolstering integrated weed management programs, and enabling long-term monitoring of parthenium infestations in central India would all benefit from the baseline data produced by this e-surveillance initiative. The effectiveness of biological control and sustainable management of this invasive weed will be significantly improved by future studies that combine geospatial technologies with seasonal population dynamics and environmental factors.

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