Effect of rice establishment methods and crop diversification on nutrients uptake by rice in rice-based cropping systems under acidic soils of Jharkhand

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important cereal crops of the world and serves as the staple food for more than half of the global population. In India, rice occupies a prominent position in ensuring food and nutritional security and contributes substantially to the agricultural economy. Rice-based cropping systems dominate the eastern region of India, including Jharkhand, where rice is cultivated under diverse agro-ecological situations. Sustaining productivity of these systems requires efficient nutrient management and adoption of suitable crop establishment methods and diversified cropping systems. Nutrient uptake by rice is largely governed by crop growth, biomass production, soil nutrient availability and management practices. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are the primary nutrients required for optimum crop growth and productivity. Efficient uptake and utilization of these nutrients not only enhance crop yield but also improve nutrient use efficiency and maintain soil fertility (Ladha et al., 2005) [8] . Therefore, assessment of nutrient content and uptake provides valuable information regarding nutrient dynamics and sustainability of cropping systems. Conventional puddled transplanting has long been the dominant method of rice cultivation in eastern India because of its ability to ensure better crop establishment and effective weed Suppression. However, Increasing labour scarcity, rising production costs and water limitations have encouraged the adoption of alternative establishment methods such as wet direct-seeded rice (Wet DSR) and dry direct-seeded rice (Dry DSR). These methods have been reported to reduce labour requirements and production costs while maintaining satisfactory crop performance (Farooq et al., 2011; Kumar and Ladha, 2011) [3, 7, 8] . Rice establishment methods influence root growth, nutrient availability and nutrient absorption, thereby affecting nutrient uptake and productivity. Crop diversification is another important strategy for enhancing sustainability of rice-based systems. Continuous cultivation of cereal-based sequences often leads to nutrient mining, deterioration of soil health and reduced productivity (Sanjeev Kumar et al 2025) [1,11] . Diversification with legumes, oilseeds and other crops can improve nutrient cycling, resource-use efficiency and economic returns (Gill and Ahlawat, 2006) [5] . Inclusion of legumes such as chickpea in cropping systems is particularly beneficial because of their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiotic associations, thereby improving soil fertility and nutrient availability for succeeding crops (Ghosh et al., 2007) [4] . Several studies have demonstrated that legumebased cropping systems enhance nutrient uptake and nutrient use efficiency due to improved soil biological activity, greater organic matter addition and enhanced nutrient recycling. The residual effects of legumes often result in higher nutrient availability and better crop performance in succeeding rice crops. Similarly, oilseed crops such as mustard and linseed contribute to diversification and efficient utilization of available resources under rainfed and irrigated production systems. Nutrient concentration in grain and straw reflects the quality of produce, whereas total nutrient uptake indicates the capacity of the crop to absorb and utilize available nutrients. Evaluation of nutrient uptake under different rice establishment methods and diversified cropping systems is therefore essential for developing sustainable nutrient management strategies. Information on nutrient uptake also helps in understanding nutrient removal patterns and formulating appropriate fertilizer recommendations for maintaining long-term soil productivity.

Materials and Methods

A field experiment was conducted during the kharif seasons of 2023-24 and 2024-25 at the Research Farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) and Zonal Agricultural Research Station (ZARS), Darisai, East Singhbhum, Jharkhand, India. The experimental site is situated at 22°12′ N latitude and 84°04′ E longitude with an altitude of approximately 244 m above mean sea level. The region falls under the Eastern Plateau and Hill Region of Jharkhand and is characterized by a sub-humid tropical climate with hot summers, moderate rainfall and cool winters.The experimental soil was sandy loam in texture, acidic in reaction (pH 5.6), low in available nitrogen (236 kg ha⁻¹), medium in available phosphorus (16.50 kg ha⁻¹) and available potassium (138 kg ha⁻¹), with an organic carbon content of 5.12 g kg⁻¹.The experiment was laid out in a Split Plot Design (SPD) with three replications. Rice establishment methods were assigned to the main plots, whereas cropping systems were allocated to the sub-plots. Main Plot treatments (Rice Establishment Methods) M₁: Transplanting M₂: Wet directseeded rice (Wet DSR) under puddled conditions M₃:

Aerobic rice (Dry DSR) Sub-Plot treatments (Cropping Systems) CS₁: Rice-Wheat CS₂: Rice-Chickpea CS₃: Rice-Mustard CS₄: Rice-Linseed. Thus, twelve treatment combinations (3 × 4) were evaluated with three replications. The rice variety Sahbhagidhan was grown during the kharif season. In the rabi season, wheat variety DBW-187, chickpea variety Birsa Chana-3, mustard variety BBM-1 and linseed variety Priyam were cultivated according to their respective cropping systems. Representative grain and straw samples were collected at harvest, oven-dried, ground and analyzed for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content. Nitrogen content in grain and straw samples was determined by the modified Kjeldahl digestion and distillation method as described by Jackson (1973) [6] . Phosphorus content was estimated by the vanadomolybdate yellow colour method using a spectrophotometer following wet digestion of plant samples (Jackson, 1973) [6] . Potassium content was determined using a flame photometer after di-acid digestion of plant samples (Jackson, 1973) [6] . Nutrient uptake by grain and straw was calculated using the following formula: Nutrient uptake (kg ha⁻¹) = Nutrient content (%) × Yield (kg ha⁻¹) / 100 Total nutrient uptake was computed by summing nutrient uptake through grain and straw. The experimental data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) appropriate for a split plot design as described by Gomez and Gomez (1984). Treatment means were compared using the Critical Difference (CD) test at the 5 per cent level of significance. The coefficient of variation (CV%) was calculated to assess experimental precision.

Results and Discussion

Effect of rice establishment methods and crop diversification on growth and yield attributes of rice

Pooled data showed that rice establishment methods significantly affected most growth and yield attributes. Transplanting recorded the maximum plant height (111.69 cm), number of tillers (312.00 m⁻²), dry matter accumulation (1074.33 g m⁻²), panicles (277.89 m⁻²), fertile grains panicle⁻¹ (123.50) and 1000-grain weight (24.92 g), followed by wet DSR and dry DSR. The superiority of transplanting was associated with better crop establishment and greater biomass production, which ultimately favoured panicle development and grain formation. Among cropping systems, rice-chickpea (CS₂) generally performed best, recording the highest plant height (112.22 cm), tillers (312.66 m⁻²), dry matter accumulation (1075.94 g m⁻²), panicles (276.98 m⁻²) and fertile grains panicle⁻¹ (122.72). The superior performance of rice following chickpea may be associated with improved nutrient availability and the beneficial residual effects of the preceding legume. Ricelinseed, rice-mustard and rice-wheat followed in most growth and yield attributes. The present results are broadly consistent with Padma et al. (2023) [9] , who observed significant differences in panicles, panicle length, filled grains and grain yield among different rice establishment methods. However, their study also showed that wet DSR could perform competitively with transplanting, demonstrating that establishment-method responses depend on soil, water and crop-management conditions.

Effect of rice establishment methods and crop diversification on grain and straw yield

Transplanting recorded the highest pooled grain yield of 4487 kg ha⁻¹, significantly exceeding wet DSR (4200 kg ha⁻¹) and dry DSR (3676 kg ha⁻¹). Similarly, straw yield was highest under transplanting (6482 kg ha⁻¹), followed by wet DSR (6204 kg ha⁻¹) and dry DSR (5640 kg ha⁻¹). The higher yield under transplanting corresponded with greater tiller production, panicle number, fertile grains panicle⁻¹ and dry matter accumulation. Thus, the yield advantage was mainly the cumulative effect of better establishment and superior yield components. These findings agree with Padma et al. (2023) [9] , who demonstrated that crop establishment method significantly influenced yield attributes and grain yield of rice. However, other studies have reported comparable or even superior yield under DSR under favourable conditions. Chandra et al. (2021) [2] reported competitive performance of DSR with conventional transplanting in Bihar, highlighting the importance of establishment conditions and management practices. Among cropping systems, ricechickpea produced the highest grain yield (4360 kg ha⁻¹) and straw yield (6389 kg ha⁻¹), followed by rice-linseed, rice-mustard and rice-wheat. The higher productivity under rice-chickpea was consistent with its superior growth, panicle production and fertile grain formation. The result suggests that diversification with chickpea created a more favourable production environment for the succeeding rice crop.

Effect of rice establishment methods and crop diversification on harvest index

Harvest index did not differ significantly among rice establishment methods or cropping systems. Nevertheless, transplanting recorded the numerically highest pooled harvest index (40.92%), followed by wet DSR (40.38%) and dry DSR (39.40%). Among cropping systems, rice-chickpea recorded the highest value (40.54%), whereas rice-wheat recorded the lowest (40.13%). The numerically higher harvest index under transplanting and rice-chickpea was consistent with their higher fertile grain production and grain yield.

Effect of rice establishment methods and crop diversification on economics

A contrasting response was observed for economic performance. Although transplanting produced the highest grain yield, wet DSR recorded the highest pooled net return (₹63,603 ha⁻¹) and B:C ratio (2.57), compared with ₹62,843 ha⁻¹ and 2.30 under transplanting and ₹51,922 ha⁻¹ and 2.31 under dry DSR. Thus, the slightly lower biological yield of wet DSR was compensated by its better economic efficiency. Among cropping systems, rice-chickpea recorded the highest pooled net return (₹65,223 ha⁻¹) and a B:C ratio of 2.53, followed by rice-linseed (₹58,639 ha⁻¹; 2.38), rice-mustard (₹57,662 ha⁻¹; 2.35) and rice-wheat (₹56,299 ha⁻¹; 2.32). The economic advantage of ricechickpea was consistent with its higher rice productivity and nutrient uptake. The economic advantage of alternative establishment methods has also been reported by Padma et al. (2023) [9] , who found wet DSR to be economically superior among several establishment methods because of its favourable returns. Similarly, Chandra et al. (2021) [2] reported that DSR could provide attractive economic returns under Bihar conditions.

Effect of rice establishment methods and crop diversification on nitrogen uptake by rice

Pooled analysis revealed a significant effect of rice establishment methods on N uptake. Transplanted rice (M₁) recorded the highest total N uptake (101.27 kg ha⁻¹), followed by wet DSR (M₂, 93.60 kg ha⁻¹) and dry DSR (M₃, 81.64 kg ha⁻¹). Under transplanting, N uptake in grain and straw was 58.70 and 42.57 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. The greater N uptake under transplanting was mainly associated with its higher dry matter production, panicle number and grain and straw yield, which provided greater biomass for N accumulation. Similar results were reported by Brar and Bhullar (2013) [1] , who observed greater N uptake by manually transplanted rice than by different direct-seeding schedules. Their findings support the present observation that better crop establishment under transplanting can enhance nutrient acquisition and accumulation in rice. Among cropping systems, rice-chickpea (CS₂) recorded the highest total N uptake (101.97 kg ha⁻¹), followed by ricelinseed (92.31 kg ha⁻¹), rice-mustard (89.88 kg ha⁻¹) and rice-wheat (85.52 kg ha⁻¹). The higher N uptake in ricechickpea may be attributed to the beneficial residual effect of chickpea and improved N availability to the succeeding rice crop. The result is also consistent with the importance of diversified rice-based systems in nutrient cycling reported by Sharma and Sharma (2002) [12] , who demonstrated substantial differences in NPK removal and nutrient balance among rice-based cropping systems.

Effect of rice establishment methods and crop diversification on phosphorus uptake by rice

Establishment methods significantly affected P uptake. Transplanting recorded the maximum total P uptake (19.31 kg ha⁻¹), followed by wet DSR (17.92 kg ha⁻¹) and dry DSR (15.78 kg ha⁻¹). Grain and straw P uptake under transplanting were 11.78 and 7.54 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. The higher P uptake under transplanting was associated with greater crop growth and biomass production, which increased the total amount of P accumulated in plant tissues. Brar and Bhullar (2013) [1] similarly reported significantly greater P utilization by manually transplanted rice than by direct-seeded rice under their experimental conditions. Among cropping systems, rice-chickpea recorded the highest total P uptake (18.97 kg ha⁻¹), followed by ricelinseed (17.68 kg ha⁻¹), rice-mustard (17.28 kg ha⁻¹) and rice-wheat (16.76 kg ha⁻¹). The greater P uptake in ricechickpea may be related to improved crop growth and nutrient availability following the legume component. The present trend also agrees with the broader findings of Sharma and Sharma (2002) [12] that crop sequence strongly influences nutrient removal and cycling in rice-based systems.

Effect of rice establishment methods and crop diversification on potassium uptake by rice

Potassium uptake followed a trend similar to N and P. Transplanting recorded the highest total K uptake (107.53 kg ha⁻¹), followed by wet DSR (100.94 kg ha⁻¹) and dry DSR (90.66 kg ha⁻¹). Grain and straw K uptake under transplanting were 12.68 and 94.85 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. The higher K uptake under transplanting was primarily associated with greater biomass production and higher grain and straw yields. The lower uptake under dry DSR corresponded with its comparatively lower growth and yield performance. A similar improvement in N, P and K uptake has been reported by others. Among cropping systems, ricechickpea recorded the highest total K uptake (107.31 kg ha⁻¹), followed by rice-linseed (99.71 kg ha⁻¹), rice-mustard (97.78 kg ha⁻¹) and rice-wheat (94.02 kg ha⁻¹). The greater K uptake under rice-chickpea was consistent with its greater dry matter production and grain and straw yield. The substantial K removal observed in the present experiment is important from a soil-fertility perspective because Sharma and Sharma (2002) [12] , (Sanjeev Kumar et al 2026) [10] reported that K can be heavily removed in intensive ricebased systems, emphasizing the need for adequate K replenishment. Thus, the present study indicates that transplanting was the most effective establishment method for maximizing nutrient uptake, while rice-chickpea was the most favourable cropping system for improving N, P and K acquisition by rice.

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