Socio-economic characteristics, adoption and constraints of climate-resilient agricultural practices among smallholder farmers

Introduction

Climate change has emerged as a major challenge to agricultural development, particularly for smallholder farmers whose livelihoods depend heavily on climatesensitive farming systems. Rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, prolonged dry spells, droughts, floods and other extreme weather events are increasingly affecting crop productivity, water availability and farm incomes. Smallholder farmers are especially vulnerable because of their limited landholdings, financial resources, access to technology, irrigation facilities and institutional support. Under these changing climatic conditions, the adoption of climate-resilient agricultural practices has become essential for sustaining farm productivity and improving the resilience of farming communities (IPCC, 2022) [4] . Smallholder farmers play an important role in Indian agriculture, but their production systems are often characterized by small and fragmented holdings, dependence on rainfall and limited access to modern agricultural technologies. Climate variability can influence decisions related to crop selection, sowing time, crop diversification, irrigation, soil and water conservation and the use of improved crop varieties. The extent to which farmers adopt climate-resilient practices is therefore influenced not only by climatic conditions but also by their socio-economic characteristics, awareness, resource availability, access to information and institutional support. Understanding these factors is important for designing effective strategies to strengthen farmers' capacity to cope with climate-related risks.

Materials and Methods

The present study was conducted in Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh, which was purposively selected because agriculture is an important source of livelihood for the rural population and farming systems are vulnerable to climatic variability. The district frequently experiences irregular rainfall, drought conditions, prolonged dry spells and temperature fluctuations, which influence crop production and farm-level resource management. The predominance of www.extensionjournal.com small and marginal farmers and their dependence on climatesensitive agriculture made the district suitable for studying the socio-economic characteristics, adoption and constraints of climate-resilient agricultural practices among smallholder farmers. Chhatarpur district is situated in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh, between approximately 24°06′ to 25°20′ North latitude and 78°59′ to 80°26′ East longitude, covering an area of about 8,687 km². The district is characterized by a semi-arid climate, with hot summers, variable monsoon rainfall and comparatively cool winters. Agriculture is a major occupation in the rural areas, with wheat, gram, soybean, mustard, pulses and oilseeds among the important crops cultivated by farmers. The dependence of agricultural production on rainfall and limited availability of irrigation makes farming vulnerable to drought, erratic rainfall and temperature fluctuations. These conditions create a need for the adoption of climate-resilient practices such as improved crop varieties, crop diversification, efficient water management, soil and moisture conservation and other adaptive agricultural technologies. For the present study, Gaurihar and Chandla blocks of Chhatarpur district were purposively selected considering their agricultural importance, predominance of smallholder farmers and vulnerability to climatic variability. From these selected blocks, four villages, namely Nharpur Ghatna and Nidhwa from Gaurihar block and Himmatpur and Simariya from Chandla block, were purposively selected. From each selected village, 30 smallholder farmers were purposively selected, resulting in a total sample of 120 respondents. The selected respondents were actively engaged in agricultural activities and represented the farming conditions prevailing in the study area. Information was collected regarding their socio-economic characteristics, adoption of climate-resilient agricultural practices and constraints faced in adopting such practices.

Results and Discussion

The study considered 16 independent variables, namely age, education, family size, land holding, annual income, farming experience, irrigation status, cropping pattern, extension contact, mass media exposure, social participation, access to climate information, training exposure, risk orientation, innovativeness and resource availability, to examine their influence on the adoption of climate-resilient agricultural practices among smallholder farmers. The dependent variable was the level of adoption of climate-resilient agricultural practices, while the study also assessed the major constraints faced by farmers in adopting these practices.

Socio-Economic Characteristics Farmers

The findings presented in Table 1 revealed that the respondents were predominantly middle-aged (43.33%), followed by young (29.17%) and old-aged (27.50%) farmers. Regarding educational status, the largest proportion had completed high school education (25.83%), followed by middle school (20.00%) and higher secondary education (17.50%). More than half of the respondents belonged to medium-sized families (50.83%), while 38.33 per cent had small landholdings of 1-2 ha. Similarly, 52.50 per cent of respondents belonged to the medium-income category and 40.83 per cent had medium farming experience. The majority also reported medium levels of irrigation status (46.67%), crop diversification (48.33%), extension contact (51.67%), mass media exposure (52.50%), social participation (45.00%) and access to climate information (50.83%). These findings indicate that most farmers possessed moderate socio-economic resources and institutional exposure, which could facilitate their understanding and adoption of climate change adaptation practices. With respect to behavioural and resource-related characteristics, the majority of respondents belonged to the medium category of training exposure (50.83%), risk orientation (52.50%), innovativeness (53.33%) and resource availability (51.67%). The predominance of medium levels across these characteristics suggests that farmers had a moderate capacity and willingness to respond to changing climatic conditions, but there remained considerable scope for strengthening their access to training, climate information, resources and innovative technologies. Similar patterns have been reported in studies of climate-smart and climate adaptation practices, where farmers' adaptation behaviour was influenced by access to extension services, information, training, resources and socio-economic conditions. Manda et al. (2016) [5] reported that access to extension services and information significantly influenced farmers' adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices. Similarly, Aryal et al. (2020) [2] highlighted the importance of information access, institutional support and farmers' socio-economic characteristics in promoting climate-smart agriculture. Abid et al. (2015) [1] also found that education, access to extension services and information were important determinants of farmers' adaptation to climate change. Regarding the dependent variable, level of adaptation strategies adopted, the findings showed that the majority of respondents (52.50%) belonged to the medium adaptation category, followed by high adaptation (24.17%) and low adaptation (23.33%). Thus, more than half of the farmers were adopting some recommended climate change adaptation practices, while nearly one-fourth had adopted several climate-resilient agricultural practices. The relatively smaller proportion of farmers in the high-adaptation category indicates the need for strengthening extension support, timely climate information, training programmes and access to adaptation technologies and resources. The result is consistent with Below et al. (2012) [3] , who observed that farmers' adaptation decisions were associated with socioeconomic, institutional and environmental factors. Likewise, Singh et al. (2018) emphasized that improved access to agricultural information, extension services and institutional support can enhance farmers' capacity to adopt climateresilient practices. Overall, the findings suggest that strengthening these support mechanisms could help farmers move from medium to higher levels of climate change adaptation. [1] , who found that lack of financial resources, inadequate information and institutional constraints were important barriers to climate change adaptation among farmers. (2020) [2] , who emphasized the importance of access to extension services, training, financial resources and markets for improving climate-smart agricultural adoption among smallholder farmers. Manda et al. (2016) [5] also reported that www.extensionjournal.com resource availability and institutional factors influence farmers' capacity to adopt improved agricultural practices. Similarly, Below et al. (2012) [3] highlighted the importance of financial, informational, technological and institutional factors in determining farmers' adaptation responses to climate change. Therefore, improving access to timely climate information, affordable credit, irrigation, quality inputs, training, extension support and better markets would be essential for enhancing farmers' capacity to adopt climateresilient agricultural practices.

Conclusion

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgmentThe author gratefully acknowledges the Chairman, Department of Technology Transfer, Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramodaya Vishwavidyalaya, Chitrakoot, Satna (M.P.), India, for providing valuable guidance, encouragement and support throughout the course of this research. Sincere thanks are also extended to colleagues, field assistants and labourers for their cooperation and assistance during the study

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