Comparative epidemiology of gastrointestinal parasitic infections in livestock in wellmanaged farms of India

Introduction

In India, the methods of animal husbandry are primarily defined by conventional livestock management techniques, especially with cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry. In 2025, the predicted livestock numbers included around 193.5 million cattle, 74.26 million sheep, 153.8 million goats, 9.06 million pigs, and 851.81 million fowl. Parasitic diseases of the gastrointestinal system remain a significant danger in global livestock husbandry, resulting in considerable economic losses due to decreased growth rates, impaired milk output, and increased mortality (Thrusfield, 2018) [1] . These infections represent a higher risk to animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle, particularly in production systems that depend on substantial or semi-intensive management (Anish et al., 2026) [2] . Recent discoveries indicate the widespread presence of gastrointestinal parasites across many geographical regions, emphasising their significance in animal health management (Karimou et al., 2025) [3] . Coproscopy is a trustworthy diagnostic procedure for evaluating parasite loads by faecal analysis, with the McMaster technique being acknowledged as the principal approach for faecal egg quantification (Roeber et al., 2013) [4] . The incidence and dissemination of gastrointestinal parasites fluctuate significantly, influenced by a blend of agroclimatic variables, management strategies, and host-specific characteristics including age, sex, and breed vulnerability (Thrusfield, 2018) [1] . In domesticated ruminants, prevalent gastrointestinal nematode genera are Ascaris, Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Strongyloides, Trichuris, Cooperia, Ostertagia, Nematodirus, Capillaria, and Oesophagostomum, among all (Mohammedsalih et al., 2019) [5] . Moreover, protozoan parasites such as Balantidium, Eimeria, and Cryptosporidium are recognized for infecting these animals, adversely affecting their health, productivity, and reproductive efficacy (Rashid et al., 2019) [6] . Tropical and subtropical climates, high humidity, moist soil, high temperatures, and even frigid environments facilitate the survival, reproduction, and spread of gastrointestinal nematodes and protozoan parasites (Rashid et al., 2019) [6] . Parasitic infections in domesticated ruminants usually exhibit a seasonal pattern, with higher occurrence during the monsoon season and a lower prevalence during the summer (Getahun et al., 2017) [7] .

Coproscopy is a reliable diagnostic tool for evaluating parasite loads through faecal inspection, and the McMaster approach has long beenacknowledged as the main way for quantifying faecal egg s (Roeber et al., 2013; Cringoli et al., 2017; Garcia & Cimerman, 2012) [4,8,9] .

Materials and Methods

Sample source

A total of 450 faecal samples, 150 each from pigs, goats, and cattle, were collected/received at the Division of Parasitology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India, from animal farms in North East India. Samples were taken via rectum from seemingly healthy animals to determine parasite burden and the requirement for targeted deworming.

Coprological examination

All faecal samples were qualitatively evaluated using conventional flotation and sedimentation methods. Flotation was carried out with a saturated sodium chloride (NaCl) solution, whereas sedimentation was used to detect heavier helminth eggs. Microscopic inspection was conducted using 10× and 40× objective magnifications. Gastrointestinal parasite eggs and coccidian oocysts were recognised using Soulsby's (1982) [10] standard identification keys, which included size, shape, shell characteristics, internal contents, and other differentiating factors.

Statistical analysis

Collected data were processed using Microsoft Excel, with statistical analyses conducted via SPSS version 26.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) and GraphPad Prism 10.0 (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, USA) to evaluate gastrointestinal parasite prevalence in pigs, cattle, and goats. Descriptive statistics summarised prevalence and infection patterns. Pearson's Chi-square test assessed significance in parasite prevalence across species, using a degrees of freedom value of 2. Individual Chi-square tests (χ²) analysed parasite distribution variations, with P < 0.05 indicating statistical significance and P<0.001 indicating high significance.

Results

Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in different livestock species

A comprehensive analysis of 450 faecal specimens, consisting of 150 samples from pigs, cattle, and goats, respectively, was conducted to detect gastrointestinal parasites employing flotation and sedimentation methods. Out of the total, 249 (55.3%) samples were positive for one or more gastrointestinal parasites (Fig. 1), whereas 201 (44.7%) samples were negative (Table 1).

Pattern of single and mixed infections (Fig. 2)

The analysis of infection patterns indicated significant variance among animal species (Figure 2). Of the 81 afflicted pigs, 24 (29.6%) had only one infection, whereas 57 (70.4%) had multiple infections. In cattle, all 54 affected animals (100%) had single parasite infections; no mixed infections were found. In goats, 45 (39.5%) of the 114 sick goats had single infections, whereas 69 (60.5%) had mixed infections (Table 4).

Distribution of negative samples

The percentage of parasite-negative samples varied by host species. Cattle had the largest proportion of negative samples (64.0%; 96/150), followed by pigs (46.0%; 69/150), with goats having the lowest proportion (24.0%; 36/150) (Fig. 2).

Discussion 4.1 Overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites

The overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in livestock examined in the present study was 55.3%, and the highest prevalence was observed in goats (76.0%), followed by pigs (54.0%) and cattle (36.0%). The higher prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in goats than cattle may be due to their extensive grazing habits, frequent exposure to contaminated pastures and increased contact with infective stages of gastrointestinal parasites. Differences in management, deworming schedules, stocking density, nutrition and environmental conditions may also affect the prevalence of parasites in livestock. Such findings have been reported in many epidemiological studies, where grazing small ruminants invariably exhibited a higher burden of gastrointestinal parasites than stall-fed or better-managed cattle. (Borah, S. 2015; Das et al., 2024; Sontigun et al., 2025) [11,12,13] 4.2 Coccidia/Eimeria spp. Coccidia/Eimeria spp. were among the most often found parasites, appearing in 52.0% of pigs, 28.0% of cattle, and 56.0% of goats. Coccidiosis is one of the most important protozoan diseases of young and intensively managed livestock causing diarrhoea, poor growth, reduced feed efficiency and economic losses. High prevalence observed in pigs and goats may suggest favourable environmental conditions for oocyst sporulation, overcrowding and contamination of feeding and watering areas. In the field, oocysts survive with moisture and moderate temperatures, allowing continuous transmission. In caprine coccidiosis, reviews have also indicated that mixed infections with Eimeria species are frequent and that environmental contamination plays an important role in the persistence of infection within herds. (Das et al., 2024; Ali et al., 2025) [12,14] The decreased incidence found in cattle may be due to changes in husbandry, age-related immunity, or more efficient parasite management measures. Field-based epidemiological studies have found similar variance in Eimeria prevalence among cattle species (Sontigun et al., 2025) [13] .

Strongyle-type eggs

Strongyle-type eggs were detected in all three livestock species, with a notably higher prevalence in goats (66.0%) compared to pigs (24.0%) and cattle (6.0% [15,16,12]

Ascaris suum and Trichuris suis

Only swine exhibited infection with Ascaris suum (16.0%) and Trichuris suis (8.0%). These parasites are nematodes that have adapted to their hosts, frequently linked to swine production techniques, and are mostly spread by the consumption of infectious eggs from polluted surroundings. These species are not expected to be found in cattle and goats as these hosts are not the normal definitive hosts for these species. The present study revealed the prevalence of the disease indicating persistent environmental contamination and the need of better hygiene and strategic deworming in pig production units. ( [12,17,18] .

Strongyloides spp.

A mere three (2.0%) cattle specimens tested positive for Strongyloides spp., whereas no infections were identified in swine or caprines. Low prevalence may be attributed to limited environmental contamination, good farm hygiene or previous anthelmintic treatment. Strongyloides infections are generally less common than those caused by strongyle nematodes in livestock but they are still important because of the ability to cause enteritis especially in young animals (Bhangale, 2018) [19] .

Mixed infections

The elevated incidence of concurrent infections in swine and caprines was an important outcome of the current research.

Infection with more than one species of gastrointestinal parasite was found in about 70.4% of the infected pigs and 60.5% of the infected goats, while all infected cattle had single infections. [12,20,21]

Study implications

The present findings indicate that gastrointestinal parasitism is prevalent in livestock within the study area, with considerable variability in parasite distribution among host species. Goats had the highest overall infection rate and the greatest number of strongyle-type eggs. Pigs were more commonly infected with host-specific nematodes such as Ascaris suum and Trichuris suis. These findings highlight the relevance of routine parasitological surveillance, strategic anthelmintic treatment, pasture management, and better sanitation in lowering infection pressure and increasing animal output.

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