Advanced integrated nutrient management practices for millet cultivation improve crop growth, yield and quality

Introduction

Millets are among the oldest cultivated cereal crops and are increasingly recognized as climateresilient grains capable of ensuring food, nutritional, and livelihood security under changing environmental conditions (Kumar et al., 2023; FAO, 2023) [21,1] . They are regarded as climatesmart crops because of their high nutritional content, resistance to heat and drought, and capacity to prevent soil erosion on marginal soils. Their ability to grow under diverse ecological conditions while utilizing atmospheric CO2 efficiently makes them suitable for a wide range of farming systems (Maitra et al., 2024; Banerjee et al., 2020; Brahmachari et al., 2018) [2,3,4] . Millets are referred to as "miracle crops" because of their many health advantages and ability to survive under harsh weather conditions (Banerjee and Maitra, 2020) [3] . They are highly nutritious, containing dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, resistant starch, protein, amino acids, and fatty acids, making them valuable for combating chronic diseases, improving satiety, and ensuring prolonged glucose release (Anitha et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2023) [11,5] . Despite these advantages, millet productivity remains below its genetic potential because of declining soil fertility, nutrient mining, low soil organic matter, imbalanced fertilizer use, and poor nutrient-use efficiency. These constraints are further intensified by climate change, erratic rainfall, and drought, necessitating sustainable nutrient management strategies to improve crop productivity and soil health (Louhar et al., 2021; Warisa et al., 2025; Hasanath et al., 2026) [22,6,7] . Global hunger and the need to feed the rapidly growing population remain major challenges, driven by nutrient deficiencies, declining food production, resource limitations, and geopolitical conflicts that disrupt food systems (Nithiyanantham et al., 2019) [8] . It has been projected that global food production must increase by nearly 70% by 2050 to meet future food demands (Jat et al., 2015) [9] . Millets continue to gain global recognition because of their importance in sustainable agriculture and food security. According to FAO estimates, global millet production reached approximately 28.33 million metric

Concept and evolution of integrated nutrient management (INM)

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) is a holistic approach designed to supply crops with a balanced combination of organic, inorganic, and biological nutrient sources to sustain productivity while improving soil health (Paramesh et al., 2023) [23] . The concept developed in response to the drawbacks of Green Revolution practices, where excessive reliance on chemical fertilizers led to soil nutrient imbalances, declining organic matter, and reduced fertilizer-use efficiency (Madhurya et al., 2022) [13] . Historically, farmers depended on natural nutrient cycles through manures, crop residues, and legume rotations, but rising food demand shifted agriculture toward input-intensive systems (Paramesh et al., 2023) [23] . INM re-established equilibrium by integrating fertilizers with compost, biofertilizers, green manures, and recycling of farm wastes. In recent years, the approach has evolved with soil-test-based recommendations, microbial consortia, nano-fertilizers, GIS-based nutrient mapping and precision nutrient tools (Madhurya et al., 2022) [13] . Today, INM is recognized as a climate-smart strategy that enhances nutrient cycling, strengthens soil biology, increases nutrient-use efficiency and ensures sustainable crop production, including in millet-based systems (Warisa et al., 2025) [6] . To improve soil quality, replenish nutrients and restore soil health and fertility, organic farming is encouraged. This approach often involves a return to traditional practices, such as the use of animal dung and crop residues, which are classified as organic manures. According to Panta and Parajulee (2021) [24] , organic manures can be systematically classified into several categories.

Components of advanced INM practices in millets

Sewage and sludge

Concentrated Organic Manures

Oil cakes (a) Edible oil cakes (i) Mustard cake, (ii) Groundnut cake, (iii) Sesame cake, (iv) Linseed cake (b) Nonedible Oil (i) Castor cake, (ii) Neem cake, (iii) Sunflower cake Slaughter house wastes (i) Blood meal, (ii) Bone meal Fish meal

Green Manures

Leguminous plant

example: sun hemp, sesbania sp., mung bean, cowpea, berseem Non-leguminous plant example: pearl millet, maize, sunflower Green leaf manures example: neem, Pungamia, Gliricidia, etc.

and contribute to long-term carbon sequestration (Guo et al., 2019) [25] . Their presence also acts as a natural barrier against soil erosion, making it essential for soil conservation in dryland farming. Beyond these agronomic benefits, crop residues can serve as a renewable raw material for biofuel production, offering an additional economic avenue for farmers. However, modern residue management practices such as open field burning and landfill disposal continue to cause serious environmental concerns by increasing CO₂ emissions and particulate pollution (Puig et al., 2019) [26] . Incorporating residues into soil, particularly through green manuring, provides an ecologically sound alternative. Green manure crops, most commonly legumes, fix atmospheric nitrogen and enrich the soil with both macro-and micronutrients, reducing the reliance on synthetic fertilizers. These crops also enhance soil biological activity and improve soil physical properties (Guo et al., 2019) [25] . Certain green manures act as natural bio fumigants, suppressing weeds, nematodes, and soil-borne pathogens without compromising crop productivity. Thus, crop residues and green manures form an integral component of sustainable nutrient management, supporting both soil fertility and ecological balance (Guo et al., 2019) [25] . ii) Animal Manure: Animal manures are among the oldest and most reliable nutrient sources used in agriculture, and they continue to play a central role in organic nutrient management, especially in developing countries where livestock numbers are increasing. These manures enrich the soil with essential nutrients while improving soil structure, porosity, and moisture-holding capacity (Zhou et al., 2022) [90] . Their application to croplands helps reduce dependence on chemical nitrogen fertilizers and supports long-term soil fertility. Different types of manure, including cattle, sheep, pig, and poultry manures, vary in nutrient composition and availability, and their use is influenced by factors such as farming system, accessibility, cost, and management practices (Guo et al., 2019) [25] . Poultry manure, for instance, is nutrient-dense and fits well within most fertilizer strategies, while cattle dung enhances soil organic carbon and contributes to stable humus formation. Bird guano is another rich organic fertilizer, valued for its high concentrations of nitrate, ammonia, proteins, and uric acid (Zhou et al., 2022) [90] . Sheep manure has shown special promise in soils contaminated by mining activities, where it helps immobilize heavy metals and improves soil biological activity, water-use efficiency, and crop performance. Pig manure, high in both organic and inorganic nutrients, has been associated with enhanced denitrification in paddy soils, and long-term application can create conditions conducive to efficient nitrogen cycling (Guo et al., 2019) [25] . Inconsistent nutrient composition, risks of heavy metal accumulation (particularly in cattle manure), and potential microbial contamination require careful and responsible management. When used judiciously, animal manures significantly enhance soil fertility, microbial diversity, and crop yields (Zhou et al., 2022) [90] . iii) Compost: Composting is an important eco-friendly method for recycling organic waste into stable, nutrient-rich humus. Through bio-oxidative decomposition, composting reduces bulk volume, decreases moisture content, eliminates weed seeds and pathogens, and produces well-stabilized organic material suitable for agricultural use (Madhurya et al., 2022) [13] . High-quality compost improves soil structure, increases nutrient availability, and supports soil microbial activity. However, the effectiveness of compost depends on the quality of input materials. Poorly selected ingredients can elevate heavy metal levels, increase electrical conductivity, or slow decomposition (Zhou et al., 2022) [90] . Recent advancements show that microbial inoculants, physical amendments, and chemical additives can improve composting efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Madhurya et al., 2022) [13] . iv) Vermicompost: Vermicomposting uses specially selected earthworm species, primarily epigenic worms, to accelerate the decomposition of organic residues. The resulting vermicompost is rich in humic substances, nitrogen, phosphorus, and beneficial microorganisms (Madhurya et al., 2022) [13] . Known for its superior stability and maturity, Vermicompost enhances root development, promotes nutrient uptake, and improves soil biological activity. Additionally, vermicomposting has been shown to reduce antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) and human pathogenic bacteria in organic waste, contributing to safer and more sustainable waste recycling (Singh et al., 2023) [27] . v) Biochar: Biochar, produced from the thermal decomposition of biomass under oxygen-limited conditions, is an emerging organic amendment with multiple agronomic and environmental benefits. It improves soil fertility, enhances crop productivity, increases water retention, and helps plants tolerate abiotic stresses (Singh et al., 2023) [27] . Biochar is particularly effective at binding heavy metals, pesticides, and persistent organic pollutants, thereby reducing their mobility and toxicity. It also retains nitrogenous compounds such as NH₃, NH₄⁺, and NO₃⁻, minimizing nitrogen losses through leaching or volatilization (Madhurya et al., 2022) [13] .

Transforming animal manures especially pig manure into biochar significantly lowers ARG contamination and enhances soil safety. As a long-lived carbon sink, biochar further contributes to climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration (Zhou et al., 2022) [90] .

Inorganic nutrient sources

Applying fertilizer to soils or plant tissues is a synthetic method of supplying necessary nutrients for plant development or addressing nutritional shortages. It must include at least 5% of each of the three major nutrients (N, P, and K) and can be artificial (Hazarika et al., 2023) [28] . They fall into three basic categories: Macronutrients such as nitrogen (absorbed as NO₃ -or NH₄ ⁺) support rapid vegetative growth through enhanced chlorophyll and protein synthesis, while phosphorus (H₂PO₄⁻, HPO₄ ²⁻) promotes early root development, flowering and seed formation. Potassium (K) strengthens stalks, improves drought and disease resistance and enhances grain quality. Secondary nutrients including calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺) and sulfur (SO₄ ²⁻) contribute to root formation, chlorophyll development, nutrient regulation and amino acid synthesis. Equally important are micronutrients such as zinc (Zn²⁺), copper (Cu²⁺), iron (Fe²⁺ / Fe³⁺), manganese (Mn²⁺), boron (various borate forms), molybdenum (MoO₄ ²⁻), cobalt (Co²⁺) and nickel (Ni², Ni³), all of which play specialized roles in enzyme activation, nitrogen fixation, pollen germination, oxidation-reduction processes and grain filling. Silicon (Si (OH)₄), though not classified as essential for all crops, strengthens cell walls and enhances plant vigor, stress tolerance and productivity. Together, these nutrients form an integrated system that supports optimal plant growth and resilience (Jote, 2023) [29] .

Biological nutrient sources

Applications of biofertilizers to soil, seeds, or surfaces result in the infiltration of plant tissues by live microorganisms that promote growth. These microbes, which are usually bacteria or fungi, can fix nitrogen, solubilize phosphate, oxidize sulfur, create hormones for plants, and break down organic materials. Plantgrowth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are the most widely utilized type of biofertilizer (Madhurya et al., 2022) [13] . They boost plant development and lessen plant susceptibility to illnesses brought on by plant pathogens. Increased shoot and root weights, delayed senescence, chlorophyll content, nutrient absorption, protein content, hydraulic activity, root development, yield, leaf area, and resistance to abiotic stress are among the advantages. Biofertilizers that fix nitrogen, such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, and blue-green algae, and those that dissolve phosphorus, such as Pseudomonas striata, Bacillus polymixa, Aspergillus awamori, and Penicillium digitatum, are commonly used (Panta and Parajulee, 2021) [24] . [30] .

Impact of INM on Soil Health and its properties

The significance of increasing the availability of both applied and native soil nutrients to ensure balanced nutrition for crops is emphasized throughout the text. This method enhances and maintains the physical, chemical and biological performance of the soil reduces the detrimental impacts of hidden shortages and nutrient imbalances and promotes carbon sequestration, which lowers nutrient losses to the atmosphere and ground and surface water bodies (Hasanain et al., 2020) [31] . Effect of integrated nutrient management on soil physical, chemical and biological properties (Dhaliwal et al., 2021) [32] .

Influence of INM on the physicochemical properties of soil

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) profoundly enhances the physical and chemical environment of the soil. A key improvement is in soil structure, where Farmyard Manure (FYM) treatments have been shown to reduce soil bulk density while simultaneously increasing total porosity and water vapor content (Salehi et al., 2017) [33] . This improvement is largely attributed to soil particle-binding agents like polysaccharides and bacterial gums released during the decomposition of organic manure (Meena et al., 2018) [34] . As noted by Dhaliwal et al., (2021) [32] ,

"FYM supplementation improved soil structural characteristics, positively influencing water vapor content," which is critical for root growth and water retention. Furthermore, INM significantly alters soil chemistry. The application of FYM can modify soil pH, a change driven by "organic acid release during FYM decomposition" (Katkar et al., 2012) [35] and the oxidation of organic matter which releases carbon dioxide (Liang et al., 2012) [36] . In contrast, the sole use of chemical fertilizers can have adverse effects, as "NPK fertilizers increased EC, leading to increased salt accumulation in soil" (Meena et al., 2019) [37] , highlighting the balancing role of organic amendments in INM.

Impact of INM on available and total NPK in soil

The synergy between organic and inorganic sources in INM is crucial for the availability and retention of primary macronutrients. For nitrogen, INM practices improve available N levels, partly due to the mineralization of fertilizers, but more sustainably through FYM, which provides a slow-release organic nutrient source (Hashim et al., 2017) [38] . The role of FYM in nutrient cycling is multifaceted; it "improves metal ion complexation, increasing nutrient bioavailability" and "converts non-available plant nutrients to available ones and releases carbon slowly" (Bhatt et al., 2018) [39] . This leads to a strong correlation where total N increases with organic carbon content, with the highest levels often observed in treatments combining organic sources with recommended NPK fertilizers (Dhaliwal et al., 2021) [32] . For phosphorus, FYM addition is a key strategy. It "increases available P content by mineralizing or solubilizing native P reserves" (Ahmad et al., 2013) [10] , thereby enhancing the soil's nutrient retention capacity and improving crop productivity (Rajneesh et al., 2017) [40] . Specifically, "FYM acts as a P source and facilitates P retention in soil" (Mondal et al., 2016) [41] . The benefits extend to potassium, where FYM application leads to decreased K fixation and a subsequent increase in accessible K. This is because "FYM's interaction with clay may contribute to improved total K content" (DV et al., 2019) [42] , and it "retains K ions on decomposed products, reducing leaching loss" (Dhaliwal et al., 2021) [32] , ensuring a more stable potassium supply for crops.

Impact of INM on DTPA-extractable and total micronutrients in soil

INM practices are equally critical for the management of essential micronutrients, preventing their deficiency in intensively cultivated soils. The application of FYM consistently increases the availability of zinc, as it plays a direct role in the soil Zn supply and dissolution. An observed "increase in total Zn content may be linked to Zn supplementation via chemical fertilizer and organic manure" (Zhang et al., 2015) [5] , demonstrating the complementary nature of INM. For copper, FYM supplementation boosts available Cu by reducing the soil's redox potential and facilitating complexation with organic molecules during its decomposition. The combined use of "FYM in conjugation with chemical fertilizers increases total Cu in soil," as the "FYM addition forms organic chelates, reducing Cu ion retention and increasing microorganism populations" (Dhiman et al., 2019) [43] . Similarly, iron availability is enhanced because "FYM increases Fe availability due to soil pH decrease and soil redox potential enhancement". Finally, FYM application is highly effective for manganese, leading to a buildup of DTPAextractable Mn. This is "mainly due to manure supply and FYM decomposition, which also promotes Mn mobilization from solid phase to soil solution" (Dhaliwal et al., 2013) [44] , making this vital micronutrient more accessible to plant roots.

Impact of INM on millet growth, yield and quality 8.1 Effects on plant nutrient uptake and root development

The use of inorganic and organic fertilizers at the required dosage is one of the many elements that affect plant development.

Additionally, INM enhances plant vigor, soil quality, and nutrient-use efficiency. According to studies, INM is crucial for enhancing agricultural output, lowering water use, conserving water, and promoting sustainable plant development. It is possible to attain high crop yields even in the absence of additional NPK treatment above the suggested dosage (Selim, 2020) [45] . The combined application of boron, sulfur, and farmyard manure with 75% NPK (N-150, P-60 and K-60) enhanced total nutrient absorption (Reena et al., 2017; Sharma et al., 2020) [46,47] . [48] India The application of 50% RDF, FYM, vermicompost, and V3-Badshah-6668 resulted in the maximum plant height, measuring 168.84 cm. (Deepshikha et al., 2024) [49] Foxtail millet India Application of 75% RDN (chemical) + 25% N (poultry manure) + seed inoculation with Azospirillum increased grain yield (Selectstar et al., 2019) [50] India Integrated application of FYM + RDF + 3% Panchagavya produced more grains than RDF (Kumaran and Parasuraman, 2019) [51] India Application of 50% RDF (through chemicals) + 25% N (through neem cake) + microbial fertilizer registered more yield than only RDF (Monisha et al., 2019) [52] Little millet India Combined application of 75% RDN (chemical) + 25% RDN (vermicompost) yielded more than RDF (Thesiya et al., 2019) [53] India A combination of 100% RDF + 1 t ha -1 neem ensured higher yield than RDF (Sandhya et al., 2017) [54] Kodo millet India Application of 100% NPK fertilizer (40 kg N, 20 kg P2O5, and 10 kg K2O ha -1 ) gave maximum panicles (6.56/plant), grains count (237.5/panicle), panicle length (14.86 cm), grain weight (1.24 g/panicle), and test weight (6.36 g), grain yield of 27.55 q ha -1 (Choudhari et al., 2018) [55] Finger millet India 100% RDF application increases finger millet growth and productivity but not crop productivity and long-term biofertilizer improves soil health, while one-season application has little effect on growth (Ramya et al., 2020) [56] India (Odisha)

There was improvement of plant height and yield attributes with 90 kg N ha -1 than lower levels (0, 30 and 60 kg ha -1 ). An increase in phosphorus levels from 20 to 40 kg ha -1 enhanced productivity. A combination of 90 kg N and 40 kg P ha -1 registered the highest grain and straw yield (1054 and 4369 kg ha -1 respectively) (Vamshi et al., 2019) [57] India (South Odisha)

The highest grain yield was achieved from the treatment with 100% RDF at 40-20-20 kg N, P2O5 and K2O ha -1 (1412 kg ha -1 ) compared to control (without any nutrient) with grain yield of 637 kg ha -1 (Harika et al., 2019) [58] India Combined application of 10 t ha -1 FYM + bio fertilizer consortia (Azospirillum brasilense + Bacillus spp. + Psuedomonas fluroscence at 20 g kg -1 seed each) + ZnSO4 (12.5 kg ha -1 ) + Borax (kg ha -1 ) + 100% RDF (50:30:25) yielded more than RDF in sandy loam soil (Roy et al., 2018) [59] Sorghum India 100% RDF + 10 t FYM ha -1 treatment showed the highest growth, yield attributes and nutrient uptake among all treatments, resulting in the highest sorghum grain yield (2416 kg ha -1 ) and gross return (₹85108/ha -1 ) (Tudu et al., 2023) [60] India Application of 75% RDN through inorganic fertilizer + 25% RDN through vermicompost + seed treatment with PSB + Azospirillum gave significantly higher GMR (₹76,068 ha -1 ), NMR (₹37,999 ha -1 ) and B:C ratio of 2.07 (Sallawar et al., 2023) [61] 8.2 Effects of INM on Crop Quality PHB-3 cultivars had the greatest nutritional content, protein content, protein yield and water productivity and the maximum nutritional content was found with 75% RDF + Biofertilizers at 5 kg ha -1 incubated with vermicompost at 500 kg ha -1 (Krishnaprabu, 2019) [62] . As summarized in Table 4, millets serve as a rich source of diverse nutritional components, exemplified by millets (Kadapa et al., 2023) [63] .

I. Pearl millet

Compared with other millets, it has higher levels of lysine, zinc and iron (17-65 mg g -1 of protein). The soluble phenolic fraction has ferulic acid equivalents and a total reported phenolic value of 168 mg/100 g (pearl millet). The soluble phenolic fraction had a total flavonoid concentration of 49 mg/100 g (pearl millet) catechin equivalents.

II. Foxtail millet

A substantial amount of fat (4%) and protein (11%). The protein fractions are represented by prolamins (39.4%), glutelins (9.9%), albumins and globulins (13%). As a result, it is suggested as the perfect diet for diabetics. Additionally, it has high concentrations of carotenoids, phenols and phenolic acids, which are possible antioxidants.

III. Finger millet

In comparison to other millets, it is higher in Fe, Zn and lysine (17-65 mg g -1 of protein). The soluble phenolic fraction's catechin equivalents and total flavonoid levels have been observed to be between 203 and 228 mg/100 g (finger millet).

IV. Proso millet

Compared to other millets, it has higher levels of Fe, Zn and lysine (17-65 mg g -1 of protein). Pearl millet has a reported total phenolic concentration of 168 mg/100 g and the soluble phenolic fraction contains equivalents of ferulic acid. The soluble phenolic fraction's total flavonoid levels have been found to be 140 mg/100 g (proso millet) catechin equivalents.

V. Barnyard millet

Functional components, such as β-glucan and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which lower blood lipid levels and act as antioxidants. VI.

Kodo millet A high concentration of magnesium (1.1 g/kg dry matter).

VII. Overall view of millets

They include health-promoting flavonoids and phenolic acids, which are essential for reducing blood glucose levels and preventing oxidative stress caused by free radicals.

Mechanisms of integrated nutrient management (INM) in millet production

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) enhances millet productivity through the synergistic interaction of organic manures, inorganic fertilizers, and biological inputs, resulting in improved nutrient availability and nutrient-use efficiency. Organic amendments such as farmyard manure, compost, vermicompost, and crop residues increase soil organic carbon, improve soil aggregation, enhance water-holding capacity, and stimulate microbial activity, thereby creating a favorable rhizosphere for crop growth (Dhaliwal et al., 2021; Madhurya et al., 2022) [32,13] . Biofertilizers, including Azotobacter, Azospirillum, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB), and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), improve nutrient acquisition through biological nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, potassium mobilization, and the production of plant growth promoting substances such as auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins (Basu et al., 2021; Bhardwaj et al., 2014) [15,16] . The balanced application of inorganic fertilizers together with organic and biological nutrient sources ensures synchronized nutrient release throughout the crop growth cycle, thereby reducing nutrient losses through leaching, volatilization, and denitrification while enhancing fertilizer-use efficiency (Bindraban et al., 2015; Vanlauwe et al., 2015) [64,65] . In millet production systems, INM also promotes extensive root development, greater nutrient uptake, enhanced photosynthetic efficiency, and improved assimilate translocation, resulting in superior grain yield and quality. Furthermore, improved soil biological activity accelerates nutrient cycling and enhances the availability of both macro-and micronutrients, contributing to sustainable productivity under rainfed and marginal environments (Paramesh et al., 2023; Sande et al., 2024) [23,66] . [67,23] . Organic nutrient sources enhance soil carbon sequestration, improve soil biodiversity, and increase microbial biomass, which collectively contribute to long-term soil fertility and ecosystem resilience (Dhaliwal et al., 2021) [32] . The recycling of crop residues, animal manures, and organic wastes within INM decreases waste accumulation while promoting circular nutrient cycling. Improved soil structure resulting from organic amendments enhances water infiltration, reduces runoff and soil erosion, and increases drought resilience in millet-based production systems (Madhurya et al., 2022) [13] . Furthermore, diversified cropping systems involving legumes improve biological nitrogen fixation, reduce external fertilizer requirements, and strengthen agroecosystem sustainability. Consequently, INM supports climatesmart agriculture by increasing productivity while minimizing adverse environmental impacts and conserving natural resources for future generations (Ravikumar et al., 2021; Sande et al., 2024) [68,66] .

Environmental benefits of integrated nutrient management

Emerging technologies in integrated nutrient management

Recent advances in digital agriculture have transformed Integrated Nutrient Management by enabling precise, sitespecific, and data-driven nutrient management practices. Artificial Intelligence (AI) facilitates nutrient deficiency diagnosis, fertilizer recommendation, yield prediction, and decision support through machine learning algorithms trained on soil, crop, and climatic datasets (Basso and Antle, 2020; Liakos et al., 2018) [69,70] . Geographic Information Systems (GIS) combined with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) enable spatial mapping of soil fertility, identification of nutrient-deficient zones, and development of variable-rate fertilizer application strategies, thereby improving nutrient-use efficiency and reducing input costs (Mulla, 2013; Paramesh et al., 2023) [71,23] . Remote sensing technologies using multispectral and hyperspectral satellite imagery enable rapid assessment of crop nutritional status, chlorophyll content, biomass accumulation, and early nutrient stress before visible symptoms appear, facilitating timely and site-specific nutrient management interventions (Kuldeep et al., 2024) [72] . Similarly, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) equipped with advanced sensors offer high-resolution monitoring of crop growth, nutrient deficiencies, and spatial variability, supporting precision fertilizer application and improving field-scale nutrient management (Tsouros et al., 2019) [73] . Internet of Things (IoT)-based sensors continuously monitor soil moisture, nutrient status, temperature, and environmental conditions, enabling real-time nutrient management and automated decision-making (Jawad et al., 2017) [74] . The integration of these digital technologies with conventional INM practices is expected to enhance nutrient-use efficiency, reduce fertilizer losses, improve millet productivity, and promote climate-resilient, sustainable agricultural systems.

Environmental and economic considerations

Anthropogenic GHG emissions must be controlled by proper fertilizer management and integrated nutrient management (INM) has been shown to be more successful than alternative techniques (Carlson et al., 2017) [67] . Uncontrolled fertilizer usage raises atmospheric emissions and nutrient leaching into groundwater.

The INM encourages high agricultural yields while lowering nitrogen losses and the related negative environmental effects (Paramesh et al., 2023) [23] . Crop nutrient intake, immobilization, and soil residues, together with nitrogen losses to the environment through ammonia volatilization, NOX emissions, denitrification, N leaching, and runoff, all contribute to the final destiny of applied fertilizers (Wu and Ma, 2015) [75] . Diversified cropping systems, fertilizer recycling and reuse plans, and precision nutrient management approaches may all be created to reduce environmental contamination. By capturing nutrients from sources such as livestock manure and agricultural leftovers, these methods reduce nutrient losses and transform them into useful organic amendments. Crop rotation and intercropping can help cut down on the need for synthetic nitrogen (Paramesh et al., 2023) [23] . Agriculture and related systems will contribute significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions. Nutrient recycling and reuse techniques in INM effectively collect and recycle nutrients from a variety of sources, including wastewater, livestock manure, and agricultural leftovers (Ravikumar et al., 2021) [68] .

Challenges

The greatest challenge in sustainable agriculture is not producing more, but producing more with fewer resources while conserving the environment. [76,77] . ii) Low adoption of INM technologies: Despite its proven benefits, the adoption of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) in millet cultivation remains limited due to inadequate farmer awareness, weak extension services, poor access to quality biofertilizers and organic inputs, insufficient soiltesting facilities, and resource constraints among smallholder farmers (FAO, 2023; Warisa et al., 2025) [6,1] . iii) Variable performance of biological inputs: The effectiveness of biofertilizers, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), and microbial consortia varies with soil, climate, and management practices. Environmental factors often cause inconsistent field performance, limiting their reliability and adoption by farmers (Basu et al., 2021) [15] . [9,49] .

Future Perspectives

The future of agriculture lies in integrating science, technology, and ecological principles to achieve sustainable food security.

Limitations

This review has several limitations. First, it is based on a structured narrative review rather than a quantitative metaanalysis; therefore, the overall magnitude of treatment effects and publication bias could not be statistically assessed. Second, many of the reviewed studies were conducted on specific millet species and under particular agroecological conditions, limiting the broader applicability of the findings across diverse climates, soils, and production systems. Third, the effectiveness of integrated nutrient management (INM) components, including organic manures, biofertilizers, microbial consortia, nano-fertilizers, and micronutrients, is influenced by variations in soil properties, climatic conditions, crop genotype, and management practices. Furthermore, emerging digital technologies such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) have primarily been evaluated under experimental or pilot-scale conditions, with limited long-term field validation in millet production systems. Future research should prioritize multi location and long-term experiments, standardized methodologies, economic feasibility analyses, and largescale on-farm validation to improve the reliability, scalability, and adoption of advanced INM strategies in sustainable millet cultivation.

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