Digitalization of agricultural extension services: Opportunities and challenges

Introduction

The Government of India, through its National informatics Centre (NIC), has introduced the District Information System on Agricultural System (Agriculture, Animal husbandry and Fisheries) in 1987, prepared the first IT Blue-Print for Agricultural Sector, through a National Conference on "Informatics for Sustainable Agricultural Development (ISDA)" in May 1995, and in 2005, launched the National-e-Governance Programme in Agriculture (NeGP-A). Digital technologies are critical for increasing productivity in agriculture, making agriculture fair for farmers, ensuring reduction in food loss both at pre/post-harvest stages, and ensuring food safety and security. Agriculture is an Unstructured and Semi structured problem and hence Artificial Intelligence (AI) and ML Applications are having immense applications and use in agriculture. Artificial intelligence (AI) (Jha et al., 2019) [26] , precision agriculture (PA), satellites, field sensors robots/drones, cloud computing, blockchain technologies, mobile apps and Internet of Things (IoT) are being increasingly used in agriculture. As the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) has unified data and computer vision, it is crucial to focus on IoT as its subset. The IoT's "Thing" can be animals, people, services, processes, sensors, logical, physical, data and databases. In the age of IoT, data are gathered from millions of connected gadgets and environmental monitors, microchipped people, humanoids, driverless vehicles and livestock. Ashton invented the IoT in 1999. It is the combination of data from "things" or a group of "things" while using AI (usually machine learning) to draw decisions from big data and the data source position. Thus, to transform PA into smart agriculture, as previously mentioned, only the position of the data was considered. Smart and precision farming makes farmers more informed and productive. According to Maertens et al. (2020) [3] , before the COVID-19 crisis, extension services mostly employed the "on the field" approaches, such as demonstration plots, group training, and farm visits, all of which implied in-person interaction. However, COVID 19-related physical distancing measures made such approach impossible, thereby necessitated the extension personnel to switch to digital tools for service delivery among farmers. While the pandemic presents many challenges, it also creates opportunities for digital tools to better serve farmers, as well as be adapted to assist public health responses, and prepare for new agricultural needs that arise (FAO, 2020a) [18] . Agriculture digitization offers ways to reduce the negative effects of agrifood supply chains and to help farmers receive the financial support and agricultural inputs they need to grow and sell their produce (FAO, 2020b) [18] . Digital innovations also www.extensionjournal.com make agriculture more attractive to young people, while productivity increases have also been seen by new collaborative arrangements (Saiz-Rubio & Rovira-Más 2020) [30] . According to Babu, risk and emergencies such as disease outbreaks take a toll on the extension system by directly affecting personnel and farmers functions in the short-term. Such disruptions during the growing season can cut off the flow of information to farmers, resulting in a decrease in crop production, livestock and fish production systems.

Institutional support has further enabled this digital transformation. The National Informatics Centre has been instrumental in developing and maintaining the digital backbone for agricultural data systems, supporting integration across departments, and enabling platforms for real-time data sharing and decision-making. Such institutional frameworks are essential for ensuring interoperability, scalability, and reliability of digital agriculture services (FAO, 2020) [18] . The emergence of digital platforms like AgriStack and eNAM (National Agriculture Market) has significantly improved market access and service delivery. These platforms integrate farmers, markets, and service providers, enabling transparent price discovery, reducing transaction costs, and facilitating efficient supply chains. They also provide access to advisory services, financial products, and input markets, thereby enhancing farmers' participation in digital value chains (PIB, 2021; Chand, 2016) [29,22] . In recent years, there has been a clear shift toward advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, big data analytics, and Internet of Things (IoT) in agriculture. These technologies enable real-time decision support, predictive analytics, and personalized advisories based on weather, soil, and crop data. AI-based systems and digital decision-support tools are helping farmers optimize input use, manage risks, and improve productivity, marking a transition toward smart and precision agriculture (Jha et al., 2019; Saiz-Rubio & Rovira-Más, 2020; FAO, 2022) [26,30,35] .

Digital Agriculture in India

According to the Press Information Bureau, about 95.15% of Indian villages are now covered with 3G/4G connectivity, reflecting significant progress in rural digital infrastructure. India has also witnessed rapid growth in internet users, increasing from 251 million in 2014 to around 954 million in 2024, indicating a massive expansion in digital access across the country. This growth has been a key enabler for digital agriculture and extension services (Press Information Bureau 2024) [34] .

Growth in Rural Internet Users

Out of the total internet subscribers, nearly ~398 million users are from rural areas, showing a substantial contribution of rural India to the digital ecosystem. This shift highlights the increasing penetration of digital technologies in agriculture and rural livelihoods, enabling farmers to access information, markets, and advisory services more effectively (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India 2024) [33] .

Rural Digital Access and Usage (NSSO & FAS Data)

Data from the National Sample Survey Office (2025) [32] indicates that around 83% of rural households have internet access, reflecting improved infrastructure and affordability. Similarly, studies by the Foundation for Agrarian Studies show that about 96% of households use some form of ICT device, such as mobile phones. However, despite high access, only around 50% of adults effectively use the internet, pointing to a significant digital literacy gap. This highlights the need for capacity-building and digital skill development to fully realize the benefits of digital agriculture (National Sample Survey Office 2025) [32] .

Major Digital Platforms & Initiatives in Indian Agriculture Kisan Suvidha App (Launched: 21 March 2016)

Launched by the Government of India under the leadership of Narendra Modi, the Kisan Suvidha Mobile App is designed to provide farmers with timely and relevant agricultural information. It offers weather updates (current and 5-day forecasts), mandi-wise market prices, plant protection advisories (pest and disease management), and expert agro-advisories. The app also provides details of input dealers dealing in seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides, along with a direct link to the Kisan Call Centre. By delivering real-time information, it significantly reduces farmers' dependency on middlemen and improves decision-making.

Pusa Krishi App (Launched: March 2016)

The Pusa Krishi App was launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare in collaboration with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. It provides comprehensive information on ICAR-developed crop varieties, resource conservation technologies, improved farm machinery, and scientific agricultural practices. The app also offers weather-based crop management advisories, helping farmers make informed decisions. It plays a crucial role in bridging the "lab to land" gap and promotes the adoption of innovative and research-based agricultural technologies. e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) (Launched: 14 April 2016): e-NAM is a pan-India electronic trading portal that integrates APMC mandis to create a unified national agricultural market. It enables transparent price discovery, inter-state trade, digital payments, and quality testing of produce. By connecting buyers and sellers across markets, e-NAM reduces the role of intermediaries and enhances farmers' access to better prices and wider markets, thereby improving income opportunities.

m-Kisan Portal (Launched: 2013)

The m-Kisan Portal is an SMS-based advisory system that delivers crop advisories, weather alerts, and government scheme information directly to farmers' mobile phones in local languages. It is particularly important for farmers who do not use smartphones, ensuring last-mile connectivity and inclusiveness. By leveraging simple mobile technology, it has strengthened communication between extension services and farmers.

AgriStack (Launched: 2024 under Digital Agriculture Mission)

AgriStack is an advanced digital initiative aimed at building a comprehensive farmer-centric digital ecosystem. It involves the creation of a unique Farmer ID by integrating data such as Aadhaar, land records, and bank details. This enables efficient delivery of services like Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), crop insurance, credit access, subsidies, and AI-based advisory services. AgriStack supports data-driven farming and improves the efficiency, transparency, and targeting of agricultural policies.

PM-KISAN (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi)

(Launched: 24 February 2019): PM-KISAN is a flagship income support scheme of the Government of India that provides ₹6,000 per year to eligible farmers, distributed in three equal installments of ₹2,000 each. The amount is transferred directly to farmers' bank accounts through the Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) system and is linked with Aadhaar for transparency and accountability. The scheme aims to supplement farmers' income and support their agricultural and household needs.

e-Choupal

Integration of market and extension services. The e-Choupal initiative, launched by ITC Limited, is recognized as one of the earliest and most impactful digital interventions in agricultural extension and market linkage. It functions as a rural internet kiosk operated by a trained farmer, known as a sanchalak, who provides access to a web-based platform delivering information on weather forecasts, crop advisory, input prices, and mandi rates. At the same time, it serves as a procurement hub, allowing ITC to buy produce directly from farmers, bypassing intermediaries and offering better prices.

FarmStack

Data interoperability in agricultural advisories. FarmStack is an open-source data exchange protocol developed to enable secure and interoperable sharing of agricultural data among various stakeholders. Built as part of a broader effort to establish a unified digital ecosystem for agriculture, it addresses the challenge of data silos by creating a framework that allows different systems government databases, private apps, research platforms, farmer profiles to communicate and share information seamlessly. The platform ensures that farmers receive more accurate, personalized, and timely advisories by integrating data from land records, satellite imagery, market trends, and weather systems. For example, a farmer using a soil testing service through one app can have that information automatically integrated with a government fertilizer subsidy program or a private crop advisory platform. PGDAEM (Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management) MOOCs is an online capacity-building programme offered by the National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) for extension functionaries such as officials of State Agriculture Departments, Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), NGOs, and other stakeholders. It aims to strengthen their professional competencies in agricultural extension through structured modules on extension management, communication strategies, agribusiness development, ICT applications, and climate-resilient agriculture. Delivered through a flexible MOOC platform, the programme includes video lectures, reading materials, case studies, and assessments, enabling inservice professionals to upgrade their knowledge and skills without disrupting their field responsibilities (MoA&FW). DAESI (Diploma in Agricultural Extension Services for Input Dealers) MOOCs is another digital initiative of the National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), specifically designed for agri-input dealers who act as key intermediaries between research institutions and farmers. The programme focuses on enhancing their technical and advisory capabilities by providing scientific knowledge on crop production, pest and disease management, soil health, nutrient management, and safe use of agricultural inputs. Through the MOOC mode, DAESI offers self-paced learning with multimedia content, quizzes, and certification, helping input dealers deliver accurate and reliable farm advisory services, thereby contributing to improved agricultural productivity and sustainability at the grassroots level (MoA&FW). KVK's implemented by Indian Council of Agricultural Research. These are Knowledge Network to digitally connect Krishi Vigyan Kendras across the country for real-time knowledge sharing and dissemination. This network facilitates faster transfer of technologies, best practices, success stories, and location-specific advisories from research institutions to extension personnel and farmers. It strengthens coordination among KVKs, enhances capacity building, and ensures that farmers in remote villages receive timely, relevant, and reliable agricultural information through digital platforms. Management Information Systems implemented by Indian Council of Agricultural Research to systematically collect, store, and manage agricultural data related to research, extension, and field-level activities. MIS enables efficient monitoring, reporting, and evaluation of various programmes, including KVK performance, training programmes, and technology dissemination. It improves decision-making by providing accurate and timely information to administrators and policymakers, thereby enhancing transparency and accountability in agricultural extension systems (ICAR). Decision Support Systems promoted by Indian Council of Agricultural Research to assist farmers, extension workers, and policymakers in making informed agricultural decisions based on scientific data and predictive models. DSS integrates data on weather, soil, crops, and market trends to generate advisories on crop planning, irrigation scheduling, pest management, and risk mitigation. These systems enhance precision in farming decisions and contribute to increased productivity and sustainability in agriculture (ICAR). Expert Systems developed by Indian Council of Agricultural Research as intelligent digital tools that replicate the knowledge of agricultural experts to provide problem-solving support to farmers. These systems offer diagnosis and recommendations on crop diseases, pest infestations, nutrient deficiencies, and farm management practices through userfriendly interfaces. By delivering expert-level advice directly to farmers, even in remote areas, ES helps bridge the gap between scientific research and field-level application.

Incubators for Agri-tech Sector in India

Agri UDAAN is a structured accelerator programme aimed at scaling agri-startups through mentorship, investor linkage, and business incubation support. It plays a crucial role in strengthening the agri-startup ecosystem by enabling entrepreneurs to refine business models and access funding opportunities. Studies have shown that such accelerator programmes significantly improve startup performance, innovation capacity, and market linkage in agriculture, thereby contributing to the growth of agripreneurship and rural development (Mukherjee A, et al. 2026) [10] . Centre for Innovation Incubation and Entrepreneurship (CIIE) represents a leading incubation model in India that supports agri-tech startups through structured mentoring, funding access, and ecosystem networking. Research on agribusiness incubation highlights that such institutional incubators play a vital role in transforming innovative ideas into scalable enterprises by providing technical guidance, infrastructure, and financial support. These incubation platforms contribute significantly to strengthening entrepreneurial ecosystems in agriculture and enhancing innovation-driven growth (Kadirvel G, et al. 2025) [9] . a-IDEA (Association for Innovation Development of Entrepreneurship in Agriculture) functions as a specialized agri-business incubator under ICAR, focusing on nurturing startups through innovation support, capacity building, and commercialization of research outputs. Evidence from research studies indicates that incubation centres like a-IDEA significantly contribute to developing successful agristartups by offering technical expertise, business incubation services, and funding opportunities. These institutions help bridge the gap between agricultural research and entrepreneurship, thereby promoting sustainable agribusiness development (Srinivas K, et al. 2019) [8] . Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centres (ACABC) Scheme is a flagship initiative promoting self-employment among agricultural graduates by establishing agri-ventures that deliver extension and advisory services to farmers. Research studies reveal that the scheme plays a significant role in enhancing agripreneurship, improving technology transfer, and generating rural employment. It strengthens the extension system by creating a cadre of trained agripreneurs who act as service providers and knowledge intermediaries between research institutions and farmers (Afroz S, et al. 2022) [7] . m-Farms (Ghana) and iCow (Kenya): African success stories in e-extension mFarms and iCow are leading examples of successful digital agricultural extension platforms developed to address the needs of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. mFarms, developed by Esoko in Ghana, is a mobile and web-based system that connects farmers with buyers, suppliers, and extension agents. It allows farmers to access input prices, weather alerts, market trends, and expert advice via SMS and smartphone apps. By enabling coordination among actors in the value chain, mFarms enhances transparency and strengthens the bargaining power of smallholders. As of 2021, mFarms had supported over 250,000 farmers across 80 districts. Impact assessments conducted by the Ghana Ministry of Food and Agriculture showed that farmers using mFarms achieved a 15-25% increase in yield and improved access to inputs and financial services. The platform also supports digital profiling of farmers, enabling targeted delivery of extension and subsidy programs. iCow, launched in Kenya, started as a mobile voice and SMS platform to support dairy farmers with breeding calendars, feeding schedules, and veterinary advice. It quickly expanded to include crop advisories and climate-smart practices. Farmers register by texting specific codes and receive personalized messages based on their farming profile. As of 2022, iCow had more than 400,000 registered users and had recorded a 40% increase in dairy productivity among consistent users. The service also includes a farmer helpline and a learning platform called "Ask iCow," where farmers can pose questions and get responses from experts. www.extensionjournal.com

Web Portals and Knowledge Repositories

Web-based platforms have become central to modern agricultural extension by providing centralized, 24/7 access to information, expert guidance, and government schemes. These digital portals serve as knowledge repositories where farmers, extension workers, and agricultural students can find reliable and updated information on crops, soil health, pest control, weather conditions, and market prices. The Farmer Portal is a comprehensive service that offers region specific advisories based on location, landholding size, and cropping patterns. It integrates data from agricultural research institutes, meteorological departments, and government agencies to provide customized content. Agri-Info is another robust platform that delivers detailed knowledge on more than 150 crops and their management practices. It provides multimedia resources such as images, charts, and videos, aiding both literate and semi-literate users. Users can search for specific issues like nutrient deficiency symptoms, pest identification, and fertilizer recommendations. As of 2022, Agri-Info had registered over 1.2 million visits annually from rural users accessing content in multiple Indian languages. Kisan Call Center (KCC) remains a widely accessed hybrid model, where queries are received through toll-free numbers and resolved by trained agricultural experts and subject matter specialists. Operational across all states, KCC receives more than 15,000 calls per day, with over 65% of the inquiries related to crop protection, irrigation, and marketrelated queries. This service bridges the digital divide by allowing farmers who lack internet connectivity to access real-time advice using basic phones.

Bhuvan Hailstorm App

Through this mobile app, the data of damage caused to the farm due to hailstorm is recorded along with photographs and geographical location, which simplifies the process of giving insurance to the farmer by assessing the loss due to hailstorm. Data analytics of smart agriculture is used by this mobile.

Agri-Market Mobile App

This app can be used by farmers on their mobile devices. To know the market price of the crops within 50 km. This app automatically captures the location of the person using the mobile and informs the farmer about the Global Positioning System (GPS) and price of the markets within 50 km.

Fasal Salah

It is an informative Mobile app which is designed to help farmers by providing real time personalized crop advisory based on current and forecast weather which includes Temperature, Humidity, Wind Speed and Direction, Rainfall for next 10 days at taluk and village level.

Krishi Insecticide and Fungicide Calculator

National Centre for Integrated Pest Management Research, New Delhi has developed insecticide and fungicide app on web and mobile platform for 12 major crops, viz. Rice, Cotton, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Brinjal, Arhar, Groundnut, Tomato, Soybean, Gram, Chilli, Okra. The main objective of these apps is to assist researchers, agricultural extension workers and farmers in the selection and use of pesticides with labels, judicious pesticide selection for the management of pests and diseases.

Farm mech App

The App is related to decision support for selection of suitable farm machineries for five major crops of Tamil Nadu. It

Technologies Used in Digital Extension 1. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence refers to the use of algorithms and machine learning models to analyze agricultural data and support decision-making. It performs key functions such as crop disease and pest detection through image-based diagnosis, yield prediction and crop planning, smart irrigation scheduling, and providing personalized advisory to www.extensionjournal.com farmers. In agricultural extension, AI is used in chatbots and decision-support tools to deliver real-time recommendations based on weather, soil, and crop data. Importance: AI improves the accuracy, speed, and scalability of extension services, enabling farmers to make data-driven decisions and enhancing productivity.

Internet of Things (IoT)

IoT involves interconnected devices and sensors that collect real-time data from farms. Its key components include soil moisture sensors, weather sensors (temperature and humidity), livestock tracking devices, and smart irrigation systems. Applications of IoT include real-time monitoring of crop and soil conditions, automated irrigation and fertigation, and livestock health tracking. Importance: IoT enables precision agriculture, improves farm management, and reduces wastage of resources such as water and fertilizers, thereby increasing efficiency and sustainability.

Remote Sensing & GIS

Remote sensing uses satellite or drone imagery, while Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analyze spatial data for agricultural planning and monitoring. Key functions include crop health monitoring using vegetation indices (such as NDVI), soil moisture assessment, land-use mapping, and weather or drought forecasting. Applications involve early detection of crop stress and diseases, area-specific recommendations, and disaster management such as flood and drought monitoring. Importance: These technologies support location-specific decision-making, improve resource management, and enhance the ability to respond to climatic risks.

Mobile-Based Advisory

Mobile technology is one of the most widely used tools in digital extension. It includes features such as SMS services, mobile applications, IVR (voice-based systems), multilingual advisories, and real-time weather and market information. Applications include dissemination of agricultural advisories, farmer feedback and query resolution, and access to government schemes, markets, and inputs. Importance: Mobile-based advisory ensures wide outreach, inclusiveness, and last-mile connectivity, especially for small and marginal farmers.

Big Data Analytics

Big Data refers to large volumes of structured and unstructured agricultural data collected from multiple sources such as IoT sensors, satellite imagery, weather data, market information, and farmer databases. Its applications include predictive analytics for yield estimation and pest outbreaks, risk assessment, and supply chain optimization. Importance: Big Data analytics converts raw data into actionable insights, improves policy planning, enhances extension delivery, and supports evidence-based decision-making in agriculture.

Blockchain (Traceability)

Blockchain is a distributed digital ledger technology that ensures secure, transparent, and tamper-proof recordkeeping. Its key features include decentralization, transparency, and immutability (data cannot be altered). Applications in agriculture include food traceability (farm-to-fork tracking), supply chain transparency, and smart contracts for transactions. Importance: Blockchain builds trust among farmers, traders, and consumers, reduces fraud, enhances transparency, and improves food safety and quality assurance.

Strengths of Digitalization in Agricultural Extension a) Accessibility: Digitalization in agricultural extension

significantly enhances accessibility by providing information anytime and anywhere through mobile applications, SMS services, and web portals. It helps bridge the rural-urban information gap by reaching farmers in remote and underserved regions. Importantly, it ensures inclusion of smallholders, women farmers, and marginalized groups. The availability of multi-language content further strengthens its effectiveness in a diverse country like India, enabling better understanding and adoption of technologies. b) Timeliness: Digital platforms enable the real-time dissemination of critical agricultural information, allowing farmers to make prompt decisions. Farmers can receive weather forecasts, pest and disease alerts, and market price updates instantly. This reduces crop losses through early warning systems and improves farm management. For example, weather alerts provided by the India Meteorological Department are integrated into various digital platforms, helping farmers respond quickly to changing climatic conditions. c) Cost-effectiveness: Digital extension reduces the dependency on frequent physical visits by extension workers, thereby saving time, travel, and operational costs for both farmers and service providers. It enables mass communication at a very low cost through SMS, mobile apps, and IVR systems. A single digital advisory can reach thousands of farmers simultaneously, making it a highly efficient and economical approach to agricultural extension. d) Personalization: Digital technologies enable locationspecific and crop-specific advisories, improving the relevance and effectiveness of extension services. Tools such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Big Data analytics, GIS, and remote sensing help tailor recommendations based on soil health, weather conditions, and crop growth stage. For instance, advisories provided by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research are often customized according to different agro-climatic zones, ensuring better adoption and outcomes. e) Transparency: Digitalization enhances transparency by providing farmers with accurate and real-time information on market prices, government schemes, and subsidies. Platforms like e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) improve price discovery and reduce the role of intermediaries, thereby minimizing exploitation. It also strengthens systems like Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), ensuring that financial benefits reach farmers directly, which builds trust between farmers and institutions. f) Scalability: One of the major strengths of digital extension is its scalability, as digital platforms can serve millions of farmers simultaneously without significant additional infrastructure. It allows easy expansion of services across regions and supports large-scale initiatives such as the Digital Agriculture Mission and www.extensionjournal.com

AgriStack. These platforms also enable the integration of multiple services-including advisory, credit, insurance, and market access-into a single unified system, improving overall efficiency and reach.

Opportunities of Digitalization in

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