Knowledge and adoption dynamics of recommended and indigenous technologies in chilli cultivation: Evidence from Tamil Nadu, India

Introduction

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is one of the most important commercial spice and vegetable crops cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is widely valued for its culinary, nutritional, medicinal, and industrial significance. Rich in vitamins A and C, capsaicin, carotenoids, and antioxidants, chilli contributes substantially to human nutrition and the food processing industry. India is recognized as the world's largest producer, consumer, and exporter of chilli, contributing significantly to global production and trade. The crop is extensively cultivated in states such as Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Odisha, where favourable agro-climatic conditions support its commercial production (Jha & Das, 2019; Sunidhi et al., 2022) [1,5] . Owing to its high economic value and export potential, chilli cultivation serves as an important source of income and employment for millions of farming households, while supporting value addition and agro-based industries.

Despite its economic importance, chilli productivity is often constrained by several biophysical and socio-economic factors, including pest and disease incidence, climate variability, declining soil fertility, rising input costs, labour shortages, and fluctuating market prices. To address these challenges, agricultural research institutions and State Agricultural Universities have developed scientifically recommended production technologies encompassing improved varieties, quality seed treatment, optimum sowing time, balanced nutrient management, efficient irrigation, integrated weed management, integrated pest and disease management, micronutrient application, and scientific harvesting practices. Adoption of these technologies has been shown to enhance crop productivity, resource-use efficiency, and farm profitability. However, the successful implementation of these recommendations depends largely on farmers' knowledge, awareness, and willingness to adopt them under local farming conditions (Sharma et al., 2015; Sunidhi et al., 2022) [4,5] . www.extensionjournal.com Knowledge is considered the cornerstone of agricultural technology adoption, as it enables farmers to understand the benefits, applicability, and management requirements of improved production practices. Farmers acquire knowledge through various formal and informal sources, including extension personnel, Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), research institutions, input dealers, fellow farmers, mass media, and digital advisory platforms. Effective agricultural extension plays a pivotal role in strengthening farmers' knowledge, promoting skill development, and facilitating informed decision-making, thereby narrowing the gap between research innovations and field-level adoption. Studies have consistently reported that farmers possessing higher levels of technical knowledge are more likely to adopt recommended cultivation technologies, resulting in improved productivity and income. In addition to scientific recommendations, Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) continues to play a significant role in sustainable chilli cultivation. Indigenous knowledge comprises traditional practices developed and refined by farming communities through generations of experience and interaction with local ecosystems. In chilli cultivation, these practices include traditional seed selection and storage, botanical seed treatments, organic nutrient management, herbal pest control, moisture conservation techniques, and indigenous post-harvest handling methods. These low-cost, environmentally friendly, and locally adaptable practices are particularly valuable for resource-poor farmers. The integration of scientifically validated indigenous knowledge with modern agricultural technologies has gained increasing recognition as a sustainable approach to improving productivity, conserving natural resources, and enhancing climate resilience (Pavani et al., 2025) [3] . Technology adoption among farmers is influenced by a combination of socio-economic, institutional, technological, and psychological factors, including education, farming experience, farm size, extension contact, access to credit, input availability, market opportunities, and perceived usefulness of innovations. Although considerable efforts have been made to promote improved chilli production technologies, several studies have reported persistent knowledge and adoption gaps. Farmers generally exhibit higher adoption of simple and observable practices such as recommended varieties and sowing time, whereas adoption of scientific seed treatment, micronutrient application, integrated nutrient management, and plant protection measures remains comparatively low due to inadequate technical knowledge, financial constraints, limited extension support, and poor market infrastructure (Naik et al., 2019; Sunidhi et al., 2022) [2,5] . Although previous studies have independently examined knowledge, adoption, or indigenous farming practices, comprehensive research integrating these dimensions remains limited. Understanding farmers' knowledge of recommended technologies, their adoption behaviour, indigenous technical knowledge, and the constraints encountered during cultivation is essential for developing evidence-based extension strategies. Such information can assist researchers, extension professionals, and policymakers in designing location-specific interventions, strengthening capacity-building programmes, promoting sustainable production practices, and improving farmers' livelihoods. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to assess the knowledge level of farmers regarding recommended chilli cultivation technologies, examine the extent of adoption of recommended and indigenous practices, and identify the major constraints affecting chilli cultivation, thereby providing valuable insights for strengthening agricultural extension services and promoting sustainable chilli production.

Methodology

The study was conducted in Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu, India, by adopting an ex-post facto research design, as the variables under investigation had already occurred and the researcher had no control over their occurrence. The district was selected purposively due to its significant area under chilli cultivation, favourable agroclimatic conditions, and prevalence of traditional chilligrowing practices, particularly the cultivation of Ramnad Mundu chilli. The district is located between 9°05′ and 9°50′ North latitude and 78°10′ and 79°27′ East longitude, covering an area of approximately 4,123 km². It experiences a tropical semi-arid climate with an average annual rainfall of about 850-900 mm, mainly received through the Northeast Monsoon. The predominant red sandy loam soils, along with suitable climatic conditions, provide favourable conditions for chilli cultivation and other dryland crops. Among the nine taluks and eleven development blocks of Ramanathapuram district, Kamuthi, Mudukulathur, and Kadaladi blocks were purposively selected based on their larger area under chilli cultivation, higher concentration of chilli-growing farmers, and familiarity of the researcher with the local farming systems and dialects. A list of villages in the selected blocks was obtained from the office of the Joint Director of Agriculture, Ramanathapuram district, and six villages were selected based on the predominance of chilli cultivation and number of chilli-growing households. The selected villages included Peraiyur and Thimmanathapuram from Kamuthi block, Puseri and Thaliyarendal from Mudukulathur block, and Appanur and another major chilli-growing village from Kadaladi block. A sample size of 120 chilli growers was fixed considering the objectives, time, and available resources of the study. From the list of chilli-growing farmers in the selected villages, respondents were selected using a proportionate random sampling technique to ensure adequate representation from each village. Primary data were collected from the selected respondents using a pre-tested structured interview schedule by personal interview method. The collected data were analysed using appropriate statistical tools, including frequency and percentage analysis to interpret the findings and draw meaningful conclusions. www.extensionjournal.com Comparatively lower knowledge was recorded for micronutrient application and disease management practices. Only 56.66 Percent of the respondents knew the recommended micronutrients, while knowledge regarding the recommended quantity (48.33%), application time (50.00%), and method of application (45.00%) remained relatively poor. Likewise, less than half of the respondents correctly identified the recommended fungicide for the management of leaf curl and chilli wilt (48.33%), the recommended fungicide dosage (43.33%), and the appropriate time of application (45.83%). The relatively low level of knowledge in these components may be attributed to inadequate extension exposure, the technical complexity of these recommendations, and the limited emphasis placed on preventive crop management practices during farmer training programmes.

Extent of adoption (Recommended technologies)

The extent of adoption of recommended chilli cultivation technologies among the respondents revealed considerable variation across different production practices, indicating that while farmers readily adopted basic and well-established technologies, the adoption of technically complex and preventive practices remained comparatively low. The study revealed that all the respondents (100.00%) adopted the recommended chilli varieties, namely Ramnad Mundu and Samba, as well as the recommended sowing season (August-November). This complete adoption reflects farmers' confidence in the recommended varieties and their awareness of the importance of timely sowing for achieving higher productivity. The widespread adoption of these practices may be attributed to their visible economic benefits, easy availability of quality seed, and continuous dissemination through agricultural extension agencies and fellow farmers. A high level of adoption was observed for weed management and harvesting practices, with 91.66 Percent of the respondents following the recommended hand weeding schedule, herbicide application, and harvesting practices. Likewise, 85.83 Percent of the respondents adopted the recommended irrigation schedule, including life irrigation, first irrigation, and irrigation intervals. The adoption of balanced manure and fertilizer application was also relatively high (79.16%), while 76.66 Percent of the respondents followed the recommended field preparation practices, including farmyard manure application and appropriate ploughing operations. These findings indicate that farmers tend to adopt cultivation practices that are directly associated www.extensionjournal.com with crop establishment, growth, and yield enhancement. The high adoption of these practices may also be attributed to repeated field demonstrations, extension advisory services, and farmers' practical experience gained over years of cultivation.

The adoption of recommended seed rate was moderate, with 73.33 Percent of the respondents following the prescribed seed rate for both open-pollinated and hybrid varieties. Similarly, 68.33 Percent of the respondents adopted the recommended plant protection measures for managing fruit borer and whitefly, while 63.33 Percent followed the recommended fungicide practices for managing leaf curl and chilli wilt diseases. Although these adoption levels are encouraging, they indicate that a considerable proportion of farmers continue to deviate from the recommended practices. This may be due to limited technical knowledge, dependence on local input dealers for pesticide recommendations, frequent changes in pesticide availability, or farmers' reliance on their own field experience rather than scientific recommendations.

The adoption of micronutrient application was comparatively lower, with only 54.16 Percent of the respondents adopting the recommended micronutrient practices. Even lower adoption was observed for seed treatment practices, where only 35.83 Percent of the respondents treated seeds with the recommended fungicides, biofertilizers, or biocontrol agents before sowing. The poor adoption of seed treatment may be attributed to inadequate awareness regarding its long-term benefits, limited availability of recommended inputs, additional labour requirements, and the perception that seed treatment is an optional rather than essential cultivation practice. Likewise, the lower adoption of micronutrient application may be due to insufficient knowledge regarding deficiency symptoms, higher input costs, and limited extension emphasis on balanced nutrient management.

Extent of adoption (ITK)

The distribution of farmers according to their adoption of indigenous technical knowledge revealed that weed management practices recorded the highest adoption level, with 95.83 Percent of the respondents adopting practices such as hand weeding and the use of traditional weeding tools and methods. This indicates that manual weed management continues to be widely preferred by farmers due to its simplicity, low cost, and compatibility with traditional farming systems. The findings further indicated that seed selection and storage practices were adopted by 87.50 Percent of the respondents. Farmers mainly followed the selection of healthy and disease-free seeds, seed storage using ash and neem leaves, and the use of traditional storage containers. The high adoption level may be attributed to the longstanding indigenous knowledge associated with seed preservation and the effectiveness of these practices in maintaining seed quality without additional expenditure. Similarly, water management practices were adopted by 86.66 Percent of the respondents, particularly irrigation based on soil moisture and mulching with crop residues or dry leaves. The adoption of these practices reflects farmers' www.extensionjournal.com awareness of moisture conservation techniques and efficient water utilization, especially under conditions of increasing water scarcity and climatic variability. Regarding soil fertility and nutrient management practices, 64.16 Percent of the respondents adopted practices such as the application of farmyard manure (FYM), goat/sheep manure, compost, neem cake, wood ash, and Panchagavya. The moderate level of adoption indicates the continued relevance of organic nutrient sources in maintaining soil health and improving crop productivity through sustainable nutrient management.

In terms of disease management practices, 65.00 Percent of the farmers adopted traditional approaches, including cow urine-based formulations, herbal plant extracts, and field sanitation methods. The adoption of these practices suggests farmers' preference for eco-friendly disease management strategies that reduce dependence on synthetic chemicals.

The adoption of pest management practices was observed among 61.66 Percent of the respondents. Farmers followed practices such as spraying neem seed kernel extract (NSKE), chilli-garlic extract, neem leaf extract, installation of bird perches, and use of trap crops. The adoption of botanicalbased pest management practices indicates growing interest among farmers towards environmentally sustainable pest control measures. The least adopted practice was seed treatment practices, with only 39.16 Percent of the respondents following methods such as seed treatment with cow urine, cow dung slurry, and neem leaf extract. The relatively lower adoption may be due to inadequate awareness regarding the benefits of seed treatment, lack of knowledge on preparation methods, and limited extension support for promoting indigenous seed treatment technologies.

Constraints of chilli farmers

The findings from the table 5 revealed that the high cost of inputs and problems related to pest incidence were the major constraints reported by all the respondents (100.00 Percent).

The high expenditure on seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and other agricultural inputs may have restricted farmers, particularly small and marginal farmers, from adopting improved technologies. Similarly, the prevalence of insect pests such as fruit borer, white fly, and thrips was perceived as a serious production constraint, affecting crop growth, yield, and economic returns.

Conclusion

The present study concludes that chilli farmers in Ramanathapuram district possess a satisfactory level of knowledge and adoption regarding major recommended cultivation practices, particularly those related to varieties, sowing season, irrigation management, weed control, and harvesting. However, considerable gaps persist in the adoption of technically complex practices such as seed treatment, micronutrient application, and scientific disease management. The findings further reveal that Indigenous Technical Knowledge continues to play a vital role in chilli cultivation, especially in seed selection, soil fertility management, water conservation, and disease control, reflecting its relevance and compatibility with local farming conditions. Despite the availability of improved technologies, farmers encounter several constraints, including high input costs, pest and disease incidence, labour shortages, limited access to credit and subsidies, inadequate marketing facilities, and the untimely availability of farm machinery. Therefore, enhancing extension support, promoting the integration of scientific recommendations with validated indigenous practices, and strengthening institutional and policy interventions are essential for improving technology adoption, increasing productivity, and ensuring the long-term sustainability and profitability of chilli cultivation.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgementsThe author and the article did not receive any funding or financial assistance from the institution.

References

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