Socio-economic status and millet-based farming: Comparative assessment for pearl millet and sorghum

Introduction

Agriculture is a key player in rural livelihood in Rajasthan, however sustainable agriculture is challenged in semi-arid regions by weather variability, decline in natural resources, and market fluctuations. Cultivation of resilient crops able to withstanding adverse environmental conditions has become a priority for ensuring food, nutrition and livelihood security, Kumar et al., (2024) [9] . Among such crops, pearl millet and sorghum which have historically served as the foundation of farming systems in Rajasthan due to their adaptability to low rainfall, minimal input requirement, poor soil fertility, and high temperature conditions, Harish et al., (2024) [6] . Beyond their agronomic advantages, these crops contribute significantly to nutritional security, livestock feeding, and income generation for rural households, with the declaration of millets as climate-smart and nutritionally important crops further enhancing their relevance within contemporary agricultural development strategies, Saxena et al., (2018) [14] . Millets are known nutritional hub with potential to mitigate food insecurity constraints globally, Kumar et al., (2024) [9] . They are marginalised food crops of various forms such as finger millet, proso millet, pearl millet and sorghum, among others. They are essential for balanced diet, as they provide a wide range of nutritional benefits such as high protein content, dietary fibre, vitamin, and mineral content for optimal health and wellbeing, Kumar et al., (2024) [9] . Additionally, millets exhibit remarkable adaptability and durability to various agroecological conditions, making them a valuable resource for smallholder farmers functioning in resourcepoor regions, Jain et al., (2026) [7] . Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) are important cereal valued for their dual purpose as a food and fodder crop and performs well under moisture-stress conditions, Peter and Harish et al., (2024) [6] . During 2020-21, Rajasthan state cultivated area under sorghum was approximately 0.56 million hectares which was 12.8 per cent of the national sorghum area of 4.38 million hectares, Yadav et al., (2025) [20] . The crop is grown under rainfed conditions and contributes towards livelihood resilience in the semi-arid regions of Rajasthan. Pearl millet, on the other hand has unique tolerance to drought, high temperatures, and poor soil conditions, accounts for 55.7% of the national pearl millet area, Bairwa et al., (2024) [2] and Jain et al., (2026) [7] . Pearl millet and sorghum are low-input and risk-minimizing crops, adapted to adverse climatic conditions which makes them economically viable crops for resource-poor farmers, Singh et al., (2025) [16] . Socio-economic characteristics of millet growers plays a key role in determining production decisions, resource allocation, and the adoption of improved agricultural practices. Differences in landholding size, status, occupational diversification, and access to productive resources often result in varying production strategies, resource utilization patterns, and levels of crop diversification among farmers. Understanding these variations is essential for identifying the constraints and opportunities associated with millet cultivation. Jaipur district, located in the eastern part of Rajasthan presents a unique setting for examining these variations due to the widespread cultivation of pearl millet and sorghum in the area. Against this backdrop, the present study investigates the socio-economic status, farm size characteristics, and cropping pattern diversity of pearl millet and sorghum growers in Jaipur district. The study aims to generate empirical evidence on how resource ownership and household characteristics shape agricultural decision-making and identify policy implications that can strengthen the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of millet-based farming systems in Rajasthan. The objective of the study was to: determine the socioeconomic characteristic of the farming community in Jaipur and the cropping patterns in the study area.

Methodology

Jaipur District is located in the eastern part of Rajasthan state. The study utilised survey through a multistage stratified sampling cum purposive research design in selection of the respondents in Jaipur district of Rajasthan.

Results and Discussion

Age-wise Distribution of Respondents

These results on age distribution (Fig. 1) revealed that agricultural production in Jaipur district was undertaken by individuals that belonged to economically active age group 25 -45 years, (77%) of the total respondents which coincides with a study by Wang and Zhong, (2026) [18] . About 7% were young farmers (18-25 years) and 16% were above 45 years. Among marginal farmers, 42 respondents belonged to the middle age category compared to 4 respondents 4ach from young and older age groups. A trend that was also identified in small and medium farmers. This dominance of middle-aged farmers shows that farming activities in the study area were highly managed by people with adequate farming experience while maintaining physical ability needed for intense agricultural work, Kabir et al., (2024) [8] . It is an age group that is largely receptive when it comes to technological innovations, improved crop management practices as well as market-oriented farming compared to older farmers, Akinbobola et al., (2025) [1] .

Level of Education of Respondents in the Study Area

From the total respondents (fig. 2), 33% were illiterate, 30% had acquired education level below high school, 21% completed high school, 10% were at intermediate education level, with only 6% having graduated or higher qualifications. Illiteracy was highest among marginal farmers, where 19 out of 50 respondents lacked formal education. Studies show that education is an important socio-economic determinant capable of influencing farmers' managerial ability, adoption of technologies and ability to make decision, O'Donoghue and Heanue, (2018) [10] . This profile indicates low literacy levels across all farm size categories, an indication that although basic education was accessible in rural Rajasthan, a great deal of farmers continue to possess limited formal education. This is because limited education constraint farmers' ability in accessing scientific information, interpreting extension recommendations, maintaining farm records and utilization of digital agricultural information, Paltasingh and Goyari, (2018) [11] . While, respondents with secondary and higher education indicates gradual improvement in human capital, which may facilitate the adoption of improved crop varieties, mechanization, and better farm management practices, Verma, (2026) [17] .

Cropping Pattern under Different Farm Size Groups

The cropping pattern (table 1) from the study area demonstrated that cereal-based farming systems was dominant but had limited diversification across seasons, with an average operational holding under cropping being 4.038 hectares. Where 47.96% of the cultivated area was growing Kharif crops, 46.92% Rabi crops and 5.13% only allocated for Zaid crops, an indication of intensive utilization of land within two major cropping seasons.

In Kharif season, bajra (15.36%) and sorghum (23.84%) emerged the principal crops, reflection of their suitability for semi-arid agro-climatic conditions of Jaipur district. Sorghum occupied a progressively larger proportion of land as farm size increased, suggesting that medium farmers possess greater capacity to cultivate this crop on larger areas due to better access to land, capital, and production resources. Bajra also occupied a substantial share of cultivated land, reaffirming its importance as a drought-tolerant staple crop. Other Kharif crops such as maize and guar occupied comparatively smaller areas, indicating limited diversification during the rainy season. During Rabi season, wheat utilised biggest share of cropped area (20.44%), followed by mustard (12.66%), gram (7.03%) then barley (6.79%). This is an indication that wheat remained principal winter crop due to high market demand, stable yields and comparatively better irrigation facilities during the season, Bisht et al., (2014) [3] . Mustard also occupied a significant area owing to its commercial importance as an oilseed crop. Then Zaid season accounted only a small proportion of 5.13% out of the total cultivated area, having cucumber, muskmelon and watermelon as the major crops, which is attributable to water scarcity during summer months, higher irrigation costs, and greater production risks associated with extreme temperatures, Debnath et al., (2024) [5] .

Per Hectare Cost of Cultivation of Pearl Millet

From the cost structure (table 2) of pearl millet cultivation, human labour took the largest proportion of operational cost which was at an average ₹4867.10 per hectare, while fertilizer and manure expenditure followed second at a cost of ₹2622.49, then machinery, seed, irrigation and plant protection chemicals costed ₹2584, ₹493.20, ₹982 and ₹394.48 respectively. Therefore, the average operational cost was estimated to be ₹11943.29 per hectare, while after inclusion of fixed costs, rental value of land, interest on fixed capital and managerial cost the total cost of cultivation was ₹20260.80 per hectare. It was worth noting the declining contribution of family labour and the increasing dependence on hired labour and mechanization when farm size increased. Medium farmers incurred larger expenditure in machinery, fertilizers, irrigation and fixed capital an indication of greater investment capacity and adoption of improved production practices, Sarkar, (2020) [12] .

Per Hectare Cost of Cultivation of Sorghum

Conversely, the cost assessment in sorghum cultivation (table 3) revealed production structure somehow differing from pearl millet. Its average total cost of cultivation was estimated at ₹28810.41 per hectare, lower than pearl millet majorly due to reduced labour requirements. Human labour costed on average ₹7077.88 per hectare, while machinery charges was at ₹5561.25while fertilizers and seeds costed ₹4167.55and ₹801.67 respectively representing major operational cost which was averaged in total to be ₹19596.5 per hectare, advancing to ₹26127.27per hectare after including fixed costs and finally to ₹28810.41per hectare when managerial cost was accounted for. These results also indicated an increased trend in production costs as the farm sizes increased, whereby medium farmers experienced higher costs on plant protection measures, machinery, irrigation and fertilizers, reflecting greater resource availability and investment in improved cultivation practices, Chindarkar et al., (2020) [4] .

Limitations of the study

The study was done on selected villages in Jaipur district of Rajasthan. Thus, results reflect socio-economic attributes and cropping patterns of sampled farmers and may not be fit for generalization to other districts or agro-climatic regions that has differing farming systems, resource endowment and weather conditions. The assessment was based on primary data collected within one agricultural year, failing to capture year-to-year fluctuations in rainfall, prices of input, yield and market conditions. Thus, including panel data from several years would give a more detailed understanding on changes in cropping patterns and farm performance.

Conclusion

From the discussion above we conclude that farming community in Jaipur district is primarily made up of middle-aged farmers with comparably low levels of formal education, especially within marginal farm setup. The cropping pattern is dominated by pearl millet and sorghum during Kharif season with wheat and mustard during Rabi season, which reflects how farmers were adapting to the semi-arid agro-climate conditions of the region. The analysis further revealed labour, fertilizer and machinery as the key components of pearl millet and sorghum per hectare cultivation that costed (₹4867.10, ₹2622.49and ₹2584) and (₹7077.88, ₹4167.55and ₹5561.25) respectively, with medium farmers investing higher in modern inputs and mechanization compared to marginal and small farmers. This study indicates that resource use, cropping decisions and investment capacity were influenced by size of the farm, while the sustained dominance of climate-resilient crops like pearl millet and sorghum showcase their importance in ensuring sustainable agricultural production. These findings suggest that if farmers access to education, extension services, modern technologies and efficient input management were improved, then productivity, profitability and the long-term sustainability of farming systems in Jaipur district of Rajasthan will be enhanced.

Policy implications and recommendations

With considerable number of farmers, particularly marginal farmers possessing low levels of formal education, government agencies need to strengthen extension advisory services training the farmers regularly through farmer support programmes, demonstrations in the field and digital information services towards promotion of improved technologies, climate-resilient agriculture and efficiency in resource management.

Policies should encourage diversification to high-value and water-efficient crops since pearl millet and sorghum dominate the existing cropping pattern due to their resilience to semi-arid conditions.

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