Carbon sequestration in vegetable crops

Introduction

Global climate change is driven principally by the progressive accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) -primarily carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) -in the Earth's atmosphere. The combustion of fossil fuels, deforestation, land-use change and intensified agricultural practices have collectively elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentrations from pre-industrial levels of approximately 280 ppm to over 420 ppm in 2024 (IPCC, 2023). The global mean surface temperature has risen by approximately 1.42°C above pre-industrial baselines, making the decade 2015-2024 the warmest on record. Projections under current policy trajectories indicate a potential warming of 2.8°C by 2100, far exceeding the 1.5°C threshold stipulated under the Paris Agreement (UNFCCC, 2015). In 2024, global GHG emissions reached a record high of 53.2 Gt CO₂ equivalent -a 1.3% increase over 2023. Among sectors, the power industry accounted for nearly 30% of total global emissions. Agriculture, forestry and other land use collectively contribute approximately 22% of global GHG emissions, with a significant proportion originating from soil management, enteric fermentation, rice cultivation and biomass burning. Importantly, the agricultural sector possesses one of the greatest potentials to offset anthropogenic emissions through carbon sequestration. Carbon sequestration -the process of capturing atmospheric CO₂ and storing it in stable biological, geological or engineered reservoirs -has been recognized as a cost-effective complement to emission reduction strategies. Among terrestrial approaches, soil carbon sequestration is one of the most promising and economically viable options, capable of sequestering 0.14-0.57 Pg C per year globally (Lal, 2004). Agricultural soils alone can potentially sequester up to 1.2 billion metric tonnes of carbon annually (IPCC, 2019) [47,27,20] .

Vegetable crops, while underrepresented in carbon sequestration literature relative to forests and major grain crops, offer distinct advantages. Their rapid growth rates, high photosynthetic efficiency, intensive cropping cycles and substantial organic residue production position them as recurrent, short-term but cumulative carbon sinks. Vegetable systems further contribute to SOC through root exudates, crop residue incorporation and the application of organic amendments such as compost, manure and biochar. With vegetable cultivation covering approximately 58 million hectares globally and expanding under urbanization and dietary shifts, quantifying and enhancing the carbon sequestration role of these crops.

The carbon cycle and carbon pools

Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the Universe and the structural backbone of all living organisms. The movement of carbon between biotic and abiotic reservoirs constitutes the global carbon cycle, which operates through two interconnected components: the slow (geological) carbon cycle and the fast (biological) carbon cycle.

The Slow Carbon Cycle:

The slow carbon cycle operates over geological timescales of 100-200 million years. Atmospheric CO₂ dissolves in rainwater to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), which chemically weathers silicate rocks, releasing calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions. These ions are transported by rivers to the oceans, where they combine with bicarbonate to form calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) -the principal mineral in coral skeletons, marine shells and limestone. Burial of organic carbon in marine sediments eventually forms fossil fuels, while CO₂ is returned to the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions at a rate of 130-380 million metric tonnes per year. By comparison, human activities release approximately 30 billion tonnes of CO₂ annually (ie.) 100-300 times more than volcanic emissions.

The Fast Carbon Cycle:

The fast carbon cycle, operating on timescales of days to decades, is predominantly biological. Plants and phytoplankton absorb atmospheric CO₂ during photosynthesis and convert it into organic compounds via the Calvin cycle:

CO₂ + H₂O + energy → CH₂O + O₂

The organic carbon fixed in plant biomass enters food chains through consumption and returns to the atmosphere through respiration and decomposition. Between 10¹⁵ and 10¹⁷ grams of carbon cycle through the biosphere annually. Vegetable crops are integral participants in this fast cycle, fixing carbon repeatedly across multiple cropping seasons.

Fig. 5. Slow and fast carbon cycle

Carbon Pools

The global carbon cycle involves four major pools: (i) the atmosphere (860 Gt C as CO₂ and CH₄); (ii) the oceans (38,000 Gt C, primarily as dissolved inorganic carbon); (iii) terrestrial ecosystems (2,500 Gt C in soils and 650 Gt C in living vegetation); and (iv) geological reservoirs (65,500 billion metric tonnes in rocks, sediments and fossil fuels). Carbon exchange among these pools, known as carbon fluxes, determines the atmospheric concentration of CO₂. Perturbation of any reservoir -through deforestation, fossil fuel combustion or agricultural degradation -shifts carbon into the atmosphere, intensifying the greenhouse effect.

Emission Reduction

Captures CO₂ after fuel combustion, preventing its direct release into the atmosphere.

Removes CO₂ directly from the atmosphere and stores it in natural or engineered reservoirs.

Methods

Pre-combustion capture, post-combustion capture and oxy-fuel combustion technologies.

Biological sequestration (plants, soils, forests) and geological sequestration (underground rock formations). Timescale Short-term; continuous process linked to combustion. Long-term; carbon stored for decades to centuries.

Cost & Feasibility

Capital-intensive and energy-demanding; limited global adoption due to policy and economic constraints.

Establishment and long-term maintenance of carbon sinks are complex but cost-effective relative to DAC technologies.

Fig.6. Network visualization on recent hotspots

Carbon sequestration encompasses multiple approaches ranging from natural biological processes to advanced industrial and technological solutions. Table 2 provides a systematic overview of the principal sequestration methods relevant to both agricultural and industrial contexts.

Oceanic Carbon Sequestration

Oceans represent the largest active carbon sink, holding approximately 50 times more CO₂ than the atmosphere. The marine biological pump, driven by phytoplankton photosynthesis, transfers approximately 11 billion tonnes of carbon to the deep ocean annually. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in surface waters is consumed by phytoplankton and upon death, this organic material sinks as marine snow, transporting carbon to seafloor sediments. Polar regions are particularly active ocean carbon sinks due to cold, nutrient-rich conditions. However, increased oceanic CO₂ uptake reduces ocean pH (acidification), threatening marine biodiversity.

Technological Carbon Sequestration

Emerging technological approaches include Direct Air Capture (DAC), which mechanically extracts CO₂ from ambient air at a current cost of $500-800 per tonne; graphene synthesis from CO₂ as a value-added industrial pathway and Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS), which integrates biomass combustion with CO₂ capture to achieve net-negative emissions. Enhanced weathering, the application of crushed silicate rocks (basalt) to agricultural soils to accelerate CO₂ mineralization is a promising but nascent strategy receiving increasing research attention.

Soil organic carbon sequestration in vegetable systems 4.1 Mechanisms of Soil Carbon Sequestration

Soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration begins with the photosynthetic fixation of atmospheric CO₂ into plant biomass. Carbon enters the soil through four principal pathways: (i) aboveground litter deposition; (ii) belowground root biomass turnover; (iii) root exudation of soluble carbon compounds and (iv) microbial biomass necromass accumulation. Approximately 30-50% of total SOC originates from below-ground inputs, underscoring the critical role of root systems in carbon stabilization.

Once in the soil, organic carbon undergoes decomposition by microbial communities. An estimated 60-70% of carbon in plant residues is mineralized to CO₂ within one year (Six et al., 2006). The residual fraction is transformed into humus, a complex mixture of lignin-derived compounds, microbial metabolites and organo-mineral complexes, which can persist in soil for decades to centuries. The rate of humification is governed by the C:N ratio of residues: vegetable crops possess narrow C:N ratios of 9-24 (compared with 58 for wheat), facilitating rapid humification and higher SOC accumulation rates. Carbon stabilization in soil occurs through three overlapping mechanisms: (i) biochemical protection via recalcitrant compounds such as lignin and suberin; (ii) physical protection within soil macro-and micro-aggregates; and (iii) chemical stabilization through adsorption onto clay mineral surfaces and formation of organo-mineral complexes. The relative contributions of these mechanisms depend on soil texture, pH, microbial community composition and management practices. [7] Soil Structure -Well-aggregated soils facilitate organic matter-stabilizing microenvironments.

Dalal et al., 2020 [5] Soil pH 5% Optimal pH (6-7) promotes microbial activity and nutrient availability, improving sequestration. Bhattacharyya et al., 2020 [13] Soil [44] Crop Rotation & Diversification 10% Cover crop rotations boost soil organic carbon by 20% over monocultures.

Duval et al., 2016 [14] Organic Amendments 10% Adding compost and manure increases soil carbon content and reserves over time. Diacono et al., 2011 [12] Agroforestry 10% Adding trees to agricultural areas increases biomass; agroforestry systems store 1.5 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Lorenz et al., 2014 [32] Perennial Cropping Systems 10% Deep root systems of perennial crops (e.g., switchgrass) store soil carbon effectively on marginal lands. Das et al., 2018 [8] C. Climate Conditions (20% contribution) Temperature & Precipitation 15% Warm, wet climates boost plant production and soil carbon accumulation.

Davidson et al., 2006 [9] Extreme Weather Events 5% Droughts, floods and storms damage soil structure and vegetation, reducing carbon sequestration. Saco et al., 2021 [42] D. Vegetation Types (10% contribution) Grasslands 4% Extensive root systems and continuous ground cover make grasslands significant carbon sinks. Lorenz et al., 2018 [33] Forests 4% Forest soils may store up to 2.0 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ depending on species, age and management. Jandl et al., 2007 [22] Wetlands 2% Slow decomposition makes wetlands strong carbon habitats; peatlands trap up to 5.5 Mg C yr⁻¹. Iqbal et al., 2020 [21] [32] .  Microbial Manipulation: Inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) enhances root-driven SOC inputs and promotes the formation of stable organo-mineral complexes, improving carbon stabilization. Table 4 summarizes the key management practices for increasing SOC through both reduced carbon loss and enhanced carbon inputs. This finding establishes planting density as a primary agronomic lever for optimizing carbon sequestration in vegetable systems. Table 5 presents cropwise carbon content and CO₂ sequestration data from this landmark study [31,35] . [2] used CHN elemental analysis to quantify carbon content in the edible biomass of three common vegetables collected from West Bengal, India. The study revealed that potato (Solanum tuberosum) stored the highest carbon at 48.23% on a dry weight basis, followed by cauliflower (44.90%) and brinjal (43.03%). Total carbon stock per unit area was strongly correlated with edible biomass production, confirming that biomass is the primary determinant of carbon storage potential. Table 6 presents species-wise carbon stock data. Trees serve as the primary carbon reservoirs in such systems, with harvestable rotation cycles ranging from 4-5 years for short-rotation species to 45-50 years for longrotation species such as mango, custard apple and sapota.

Carbon sequestration potential of vegetable crops 5.1 Carbon Fixation and Biomass Carbon Stock

Organic vegetable farming and carbon sequestration 6.1 Comparative Carbon Sequestration in Organic vs. Conventional Systems

Organic farming systems have consistently demonstrated superior soil carbon sequestration compared with conventional systems. A global meta-analysis by Gattinger et al. (2012) involving 14 years of comparative data reported that SOC in the upper 20 cm of soil was 3.50 ± 1.08 Mg C ha⁻¹ higher in organic systems than in nonorganic systems. Sardiana (2021), in a study conducted in Bali, Indonesia, found that organic vegetable farming increased SOC sequestration by 1.18 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ compared with conventional systems at a 10 cm depth. Organic farming produced 49.02% more labile carbon (p<0.01) and stored 24.52% more total soil carbon. Table 7 presents key comparative data [39,17,43] . ns denote significance at 1%, 5% and non-significant levels, respectively. BD = bulk density; SOC = soil organic carbon; SOCS = soil organic carbon sequestration.

Fig 14 & 15:

The influence of carbon farming recommended management practices compared to the main agricultural polluters and Comparison of soil carbon content profile between conventional and organic vegetable fields in the top 30 cm soil depth.

GHG Emission Reduction in Organic Vegetable Systems

Beyond direct SOC accumulation, organic vegetable farming reduces overall GHG emissions.

Role of Biofertilizers and Biostimulants

Sustainable alternatives to synthetic inputs, particularly plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), significantly enhance soil microbial activity, root exudation and SOC accumulation. AMF improve plant nutrient acquisition, particularly phosphorus, and stimulate the production of glomalin, a glycoprotein that stabilizes soil aggregates and physically protects SOC from decomposition. Biofertilizers additionally contribute to biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and phosphorus solubilization, reducing synthetic N₂Oemitting fertilizer requirements while improving soil organic matter quality (Dasgan et al., 2023). Legume inclusion in vegetable rotations significantly augments SOC through high-quality nitrogen-rich residues with narrow C:N ratios that promote humification (Lüscher et al., 2014) [16,11,10,34] .

Role of biochar in soil carbon sequestration 7.1 Biochar Properties and Carbon Stability

Biochar is a carbon-rich, porous material produced by pyrolysis of organic biomass (crop residues, wood, animal manure) under oxygen-limited conditions at temperatures of 300-700°C. Its highly condensed aromatic ring structure renders it recalcitrant to microbial decomposition, with mean residence times of decades to millennia in soil (Lehmann et al., 2015) [30] . This stability distinguishes biochar from fresh crop residues, where 60-70% of carbon is respired as CO₂ within one year of incorporation. Biochar application mitigates GHG emissions through multiple pathways: improvement of soil aeration reduces methanogenesis; adsorption of ammonium (NH₄⁺) and nitrate (NO₃⁻) decreases nitrification and denitrification, thereby reducing N₂O emissions; and reduced synthetic fertilizer requirements diminish indirect N₂O emissions from fertilizer manufacture and application. [49] conducted a landmark 3-year biochar experiment under intensive vegetable rotation in Shanghai, China, applying wheat straw biochar at 0 (CK), 10 (C10), 20

(C20) and 40 (C40) Mg ha⁻¹. Key findings from this study are presented in Table 8. (2025) [29] further reported simultaneous enhancement of carbon sequestration and productivity in radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) cultivation under high biochar doses, confirming its dual agronomic and climate benefit.

Carbon Sequestration Enzyme Activity

Li et al. (2019) [31] established a mechanistic link between photosynthetic enzyme activity and carbon sequestration capacity across nine crops. For C4 crops, PEP carboxylase activity directly correlated with carbon fixation, while for C3 crops, RuBP carboxylase (Rubisco) activity was the determining enzyme. Table 9 presents carbon sequestration enzyme activity data for selected crops. The results confirm that C4 crops possess inherently superior carbon fixation capacity due to the CO₂-concentrating PEP mechanism, which suppresses photorespiration. Among C3 vegetable crops, tomato and cucumber showed the highest Rubisco activity and corresponding carbon sequestration rates, while eggplant and pepper exhibited the lowest values.

Integrated Nutrient Management in Cauliflower

Kashyap et al. (2017) [24] evaluated INM treatments (100% RDF, partial RDF with vermicompost) on SOC stock and sequestration rate in cauliflower at Raipur, India. The 100% RDF treatment recorded the highest SOC stock (12.81 t ha⁻¹) and SOC sequestration rate (0.85 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹). A significant linear relationship was established between SOC stock and crop yield (R² = 0.292) and between organic carbon percentage and carbon sequestration rate (R² = 0.449). These findings affirm the importance of nutrient management in simultaneously optimizing yield and carbon storage.

Organic Waste Amendments in Tomato Cultivation

Rahman (2013) [40] demonstrated that application of household waste (HW) compost at 3 kg m⁻² achieved the highest organic carbon sequestration of 2.90 Mg ha⁻¹ in tomato cultivation in Bangladesh, with an OC sequestration efficiency of 44.29% of added OC. Chicken manure and cow dung at 4 kg m⁻² were also effective, confirming that diverse organic waste streams can serve as carbon-enriching soil amendments in vegetable systems.

Cover Crops and Legumes in Vegetable Rotations

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