Effect of integrated nutrient management practices on growth and yield performance of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Introduction

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important cereal crops globally, serving as a staple food for more than 35% of the world's population (Dwivedi et al. 2025) [4] . In India, wheat occupies a pivotal position in ensuring food security, with the country being the second-largest producer worldwide, contributing approximately 13.5% to global wheat production (Anonymous, 2024) [1] . The crop is predominantly cultivated during the rabi season under diverse agro-climatic conditions, ranging from the Indo-Gangetic plains to the hilly terrains of the northwestern Himalayas (Kumar et al. 2022) [7] . However, sustaining wheat productivity in these regions faces multiple challenges, including declining soil organic carbon, imbalanced fertilizer use, nutrient mining and emerging environmental concerns associated with intensive agriculture (Liu et al. 2025) [8] . The northwestern Himalayan region, encompassing Himachal Pradesh, presents unique agroecological conditions characterized by undulating topography, varied altitude and distinct temperature regimes that significantly influence crop growth and productivity (Verma et al. 2018) [16] . The soils in this region are typically acidic to slightly acidic with low to medium fertility status, particularly deficient in available nitrogen and organic carbon content (Saini et al. 2023) [12] . Under such conditions, the exclusive reliance on chemical fertilizers for meeting crop nutrient demands has proven inadequate and environmentally unsustainable over the long term (Parewa et al. 2022) [10] . Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) has emerged as a scientifically validated approach that synergistically combines chemical fertilizers with organic manures, biofertilizers and crop residues to optimize nutrient availability, improve soil health and enhance crop productivity (Meena et al. 2018) [9] . The fundamental principle of INM rests on the premise that no single nutrient source can sustain soil productivity indefinitely; rather, a balanced integration of diverse nutrient sources can complement each other, resulting in enhanced nutrient use efficiency and reduced environmental footprint (Rani et al. 2025) [11] . The application of farmyard manure (FYM) and vermicompost as organic amendments has gained considerable attention due to their multifaceted benefits, including improvement in soil physical properties, enhancement of microbial diversity and provision of slow-release nutrients (Badgaiyan et al. 2025) [3] . Vermicompost, a fine-textured, peat-like material produced through earthworm-mediated decomposition of organic matter, is particularly valued for its high nutrient content, beneficial microbial populations and plant growth-promoting substances such as humic acids and auxins (Aslam et al. 2025) [2] . Research has demonstrated that vermicompost application can enhance soil water-holding capacity, improve cation exchange capacity and stimulate root development, thereby contributing to improved nutrient uptake and overall plant vigor (Hafez et al. 2020) [6] . Similarly, FYM has been traditionally recognized as an excellent soil amendment that provides a balanced supply of macro and micronutrients while improving soil structure and buffering capacity (Kumar et al. 2022) [7] . Several studies have documented the positive impact of INM on wheat productivity across different agro-climatic regions of India. Dwivedi et al. (2025) [4] reported that the application of 50% recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) combined with organic sources and biofertilizers significantly improved wheat growth parameters and yield attributes while maintaining economic viability. Similarly, Saini et al. (2023) [12] observed that combined application of vermicompost with recommended nitrogen levels produced significantly higher grain yield (5096 kg ha⁻¹) compared to sole chemical fertilizer application. Kumar et al. (2022) [7] demonstrated that 75% NPK combined with 10 t ha⁻¹ FYM achieved comparable grain yield to 100% NPK alone, while significantly improving profitability and reducing chemical fertilizer dependency by 25%. Despite the accumulating evidence supporting INM practices, limited research has been conducted specifically in the mid-hill conditions of Himachal Pradesh to systematically evaluate the comparative efficacy of different organic amendments (FYM and vermicompost) when integrated with varying levels of chemical fertilizers on wheat growth and yield. The present investigation was therefore designed to fill this critical knowledge gap by assessing the effect of different INM combinations on growth parameters (plant height, number of tillers, dry matter accumulation) and yield attributes (grain yield, straw yield, biological yield and harvest index) of wheat variety HPW 360 under the specific agro-climatic conditions of Mandi, Himachal Pradesh. The hypothesis tested was that integration of organic manures with reduced doses of chemical fertilizers would sustain or enhance wheat productivity while improving soil health parameters compared to sole chemical fertilizer application.

Materials and Methods

Experimental Site

The proposed experimental study was undertaken at the Research Farm of School of Agriculture, Abhilashi University, Mandi (Himachal Pradesh), India. The experimental site is situated in the mid-hill zone of the northwestern Himalayas at an altitude of approximately 880 meters above mean sea level, located at 31°42' N latitude and 76°59' E longitude. The region falls under the humid subtropical to temperate climate zone, characterized by mild winters and moderate summers. The soil of the experimental field was clay loam in texture, slightly acidic in reaction (pH 6.2), medium in organic carbon content (0.52%), low in available nitrogen (185 kg ha⁻¹), medium in available phosphorus (22.5 kg ha⁻¹) and high in available potassium (245 kg ha⁻¹).

Experimental Design and Treatments

The field experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) comprising eight treatment combinations with three replications. The detailed treatment structure is presented in Table 1. The recommended dose of NPK for wheat in the region was 120:60:40 kg ha⁻¹.

Crop Management

The wheat variety HPW 360, a high-yielding cultivar recommended for cultivation in the northwestern Himalayan region, was sown at a seed rate of 100 kg ha⁻¹ using a seed drill with row spacing of 22 cm. The gross plot size was 3 m x 2 m (6 m²) and the net plot size was 2.5 m x 1.5 m (3.75 m²). Standard agronomic practices including irrigation, weeding and plant protection measures were uniformly adopted across all treatments as per recommended package of practices. The crop was harvested at physiological maturity and yield data was recorded from the net plot area.

Observations Recorded

Growth parameters were measured at 60, 90, 120, 150 days after sowing (DAS) and at harvest. Plant height (cm) was measured from the base of the plant to the tip of the longest leaf/tiller using a meter scale. The number of tillers was counted from a representative area of 1 m² in each net plot. Dry matter accumulation (g m⁻²) was determined by oven-drying representative plant samples at 65°C until constant weight. At harvest, grain yield and straw yield were recorded from the net plot area and expressed in q ha⁻¹. Biological yield was computed as the sum of grain yield and straw yield. Harvest index (%) was calculated as the ratio of grain yield to biological yield expressed as a percentage.

Statistical Analysis

The data collected from the experiment were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) appropriate for randomized block design as described by Gomez and Gomez (1984) [5] . The significance of treatment differences was tested at 5% probability level (p = 0.05). Critical difference (CD) values were calculated wherever the treatment effects were found significant. The standard error of mean (SEm±) was also computed for all parameters.

Results

Growth Parameters 3.1.1 Plant Height

The plant height of wheat was significantly influenced by different integrated nutrient management treatments at all stages of crop growth, namely 60, 90, 120, 150 DAS and at harvest (Table 3; Figure 1). At 60 DAS, plant height ranged from 20.84 cm (T 1: Control) to 40.60 cm (T 4: 100% RDN + vermicompost).

The maximum plant height at all growth stages was recorded under treatment T 4 (100% RDN + vermicompost at 2.5 t ha⁻¹), which was statistically at par with treatment T 3 (100% RDN + FYM at 10 t ha⁻¹). At 150 DAS, T 4 recorded 105.80 cm plant height compared to 102.57 cm in T 3 and 96.68 cm in T 2 (100% RDN through chemical fertilizer alone). The lowest plant height was consistently recorded under T 1 (Control) across all growth stages, attributed to the absence of nutrient supplementation that restricted early vegetative growth.

The superiority of T 4 in terms of plant height can be attributed to the combined application of inorganic fertilizer along with vermicompost, which improved soil structure, enhanced microbial activity and increased nutrient availability.

Vermicompost contains significant amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and micronutrients in readily available forms, along with growth-promoting substances such as auxins and gibberellins that stimulate cell division and elongation, ultimately resulting in higher plant height (Badgaiyan et al. 2025) [3] . The treatments receiving 75% RDN with organic amendments (T 5 and T 6 ) recorded intermediate values, while 50% substitution treatments (T 7 and T 8 ) showed lower but still significantly higher values than control. The vermicompost-based treatments (T 4 , T 6 , T 8 ) consistently outperformed their FYM counterparts (T 3 , T 5 , T 7 ), indicating the superior quality of vermicompost in promoting vegetative growth.

Number of Tillers

The number of tillers per square meter was significantly influenced by different nutrient management treatments at all stages of crop growth (Table 4; Figure 2). The maximum number of tillers at 120 DAS was recorded under treatment T 4 (100% RDN + vermicompost) with 308.03 tillers m⁻², which was statistically at par with T 3 (288.49 tillers m⁻¹). The lowest number of tillers was recorded under T 1 (Control) with 180.82 tillers m⁻² at 120 DAS. A noticeable reduction in tiller number occurred between 120 DAS and harvest across all treatments, which is attributed to the senescence of unproductive tillers as the crop transitioned from the vegetative to the reproductive phase.

The superiority of T 4 in tiller production can be explained by the adequate availability of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, which plays a pivotal role in promoting vegetative growth and tiller formation in wheat. The application of vermicompost along with 100% recommended dose of nitrogen improved soil structure, enhanced microbial activity and increased the availability of nutrients during the critical tillering phase. Treatments incorporating vermicompost (T 4 , T 6 , T 8 ) generally maintained a higher tiller survival rate compared to their counterparts using FYM, suggesting better nutrient availability during the later growth stages. This finding aligns with the observations of Saini et al. (2023) [12] , who reported that combined application of vermicompost with recommended fertilizer doses significantly enhanced tiller production in wheat.

Dry Matter Accumulation

Dry matter accumulation of wheat was significantly influenced by different nutrient management treatments at all stages of crop growth (Table 5; Figure 3). The maximum dry matter accumulation at 150 DAS was recorded under treatment T 4 (100% RDN + vermicompost) with 1007.17 g m⁻², which was statistically at par with T 3 (984.56 g m⁻²). At harvest, T 4 recorded 1001.77 g m⁻² compared to 971.21 g m⁻² in T 3 and 964.24 g m⁻² in T 2 . The lowest dry matter accumulation was observed under T 1 (Control) with 829.83 g m⁻² at harvest. The higher accumulation of dry matter under T 3 and T 4 treatments was attributed to the higher availability of nutrients through the combined application of synthetic fertilizer and organic manure, which ultimately improved photosynthetic efficiency and enhanced translocation of assimilates to foliage plant parts, resulting in greater biomass production. Among the reduced fertilizer levels, T 6 (75% RDN + vermicompost) and T 5 (75% RDN + FYM) showed moderate increases in dry matter accumulation, with vermicompost again proving superior over FYM treatments. Treatments with 50% RDN recorded comparatively lower values, although T 8 (50% RDN + vermicompost) outperformed T 7 (50% RDN + FYM), maintaining the consistent trend of vermicompost superiority. These results are in close agreement with the findings of Sharma et al. (2019) [13] and Verma et al. (2018) [16] , who also reported enhanced dry matter accumulation in wheat under integrated nutrient management practices.

Yield Parameters 3.2.1 Grain Yield

Grain yield of wheat was significantly influenced by different nutrient management treatments (Table 6; Figure 4). The maximum grain yield was recorded under T 4 (100% RDN + vermicompost) at 44.84 q ha⁻¹, which remained statistically at par with T 3 (42.77 q ha⁻¹), while the lowest grain yield was observed under T 1 (Control) at 28.55 q ha⁻¹. The grain yield under T 4 represented a remarkable 57.1% increase over control and a 12.0% increase over T 2 (100% RDN through chemical fertilizer alone). The higher grain productivity recorded under T 4 was attributed to improved tillering, superior spike development, efficient grain filling and enhanced assimilate translocation towards reproductive sinks. Vermicompost likely improved nutrient synchronization and root activity, thereby increasing nutrient use efficiency (Rani et al. 2025) [11] .

Fig 4:

Effect of integrated nutrient management treatments on grain yield (q ha⁻¹) of wheat

Straw Yield

Straw yield was significantly affected by nutrient management treatments (Table 6). Treatment T 4 recorded the highest straw yield of 53.88 q ha⁻¹, which was at par with T 3 (51.48 q ha⁻¹). The control treatment (T 1 ) recorded the lowest straw yield of 35.59 q ha⁻¹. The increase in straw yield under T 4 over T 1 was 51.4%, while over T 2 (49.65 q ha⁻¹) it was 8.5%. The higher straw yield was attributed to the better nutrient availability throughout the crop growth period, which promoted stem elongation, leaf area expansion and prolonged photosynthetic activity. The continuous nitrogen availability and improved soil physical conditions under vermicompost application enhanced structural biomass formation through greater internodal elongation and dry matter accumulation (Singh et al. 2019) [15] .

Biological Yield

Biological yield followed a similar trend to grain and straw yield, being significantly influenced by different nutrient management treatments (Table 6; Figure 5). The highest biological yield was recorded under T 4 (98.72 q ha⁻¹), which was statistically at par with T 3 (94.25 q ha⁻¹), while the lowest was observed under T 1 (64.14 q ha⁻¹). The increase in biological yield in T 4 over control was 53.9%, representing a substantial improvement in total dry matter production. This enhancement was attributed to enhanced nutrient uptake, better root growth, higher photosynthetic efficiency and improved moisture conservation under integrated nutrient management. The combined organic and inorganic nutrient sources improved radiation use efficiency and cumulative biomass synthesis by sustaining photosynthetically active canopy duration, thereby maximizing biological yield (Kumar et al. 2025) [7] .

Harvest Index

Harvest index showed non-significant variation across all nutrient management treatments (Table 6). Although statistically nonsignificant, the highest harvest index was recorded under T 4 (45.42%) and T 3 (45.38%), compared to the remaining treatments. The lowest harvest index was recorded under T 7 (43.86%). The relatively stable harvest index across treatments suggests that integrated nutrient management improved both grain and straw yield proportionately without substantially altering the assimilate partitioning efficiency. This observation indicates that the sourcesink relationship remained balanced under different nutrient management regimes and the proportional increase in economic yield (grain) and biological yield (total biomass) was maintained. Similar findings were reported by Singh et al. (2024) [14] and Sharma et al. (2019) [13] , who also observed non-significant variation in harvest index under integrated nutrient management, indicating proportional improvement in economic and biological yield.

Discussion

The present investigation elucidates the profound influence of integrated nutrient management practices on the growth and yield performance of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under the mid-hill agro-climatic conditions of Himachal Pradesh. The results convincingly demonstrate that the combined application of inorganic fertilizers with organic amendments, particularly vermicompost, significantly enhanced all growth and yield parameters compared to sole chemical fertilization or unfertilized control. The underlying mechanisms and comparative analysis with existing literature are discussed in the following sections.

Growth Response to INM

The significant improvement in plant height under integrated nutrient treatments, particularly T 4 (100% RDN + vermicompost), can be attributed to the synergistic interaction between readily available inorganic nutrients and slow-release organic nutrients.

Vermicompost is known to contain humic substances, plant growth hormones (auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins) and beneficial microorganisms that stimulate cell division and elongation, leading to increased plant stature (Aslam et al. 2025) [2] . The findings corroborate with Dwivedi et al. (2025) [4] , who reported that the combined application of organic and inorganic nutrient sources significantly improved plant height of wheat through enhanced nutrient availability and improved soil biological activity.

The number of tillers, a critical determinant of wheat yield potential, showed maximum expression under T 4 treatment. This can be mechanistically explained by the fact that adequate nitrogen availability during the tillering phase (30-60 DAS) promotes the formation of secondary and tertiary tillers. Vermicompost, with its high nitrogen content (1.5-2.5%) and mineralization rate, ensures sustained nitrogen supply during this critical growth window (Badgaiyan et al. 2025) [3] . Additionally, the improved soil physical conditions under vermicompost application enhance root proliferation, enabling better exploitation of soil nutrients and moisture, which directly translates to increased tiller production. The observed decline in tiller number between 120 DAS and harvest represents a natural physiological process where unproductive tillers senesce, diverting their assimilates to productive spikes (Saini et al. 2023) [12] . Dry matter accumulation is a function of photosynthetic efficiency, leaf area duration and assimilate partitioning. The significantly higher dry matter under T 4 and T 3 treatments reflects the combined effect of enhanced photosynthetic capacity due to better nutrition and prolonged leaf area duration. The integration of organic manures with chemical fertilizers ensures a continuous nutrient supply that maintains chlorophyll content and photosynthetic rates over an extended period. This finding is consistent with Verma et al. (2018) [16] , who reported enhanced dry matter accumulation in wheat under integrated nutrient management practices, attributing it to improved nutrient uptake efficiency and better source-sink relationships.

Yield Response to INM

The grain yield response to different INM treatments provides the most compelling evidence for the efficacy of integrated approaches. The 57.1% increase in grain yield under T 4 over control and 12.0% increase over sole chemical fertilizer application underscores the substantial yield advantage conferred by vermicompost integration. This yield enhancement can be mechanistically linked to several factors: (i) improved tiller production leading to higher spike density per unit area, (ii) better spike development characterized by increased spike length and grain number per spike, (iii) efficient grain filling due to sustained post-anthesis assimilate supply and (iv) enhanced translocation of photosynthates from source (leaves) to sink (grains) (Rani et al. 2025) [11] . The superiority of vermicompost over FYM in enhancing yield can be attributed to its higher nutrient content, particularly available nitrogen and phosphorus and the presence of growthpromoting metabolites. Vermicompost typically contains 1.5-2.5% N, 1.0-1.5% P₂O₅ and 0.5-1.0% K₂O, along with essential micronutrients in plant-available forms (Hafez et al. 2020) [6] . Furthermore, earthworm-processed organic matter exhibits higher microbial diversity and enzymatic activity, which facilitates nutrient mineralization and root exploration. The findings align with those of Kumar et al. (2022) [7] , who demonstrated that judicious application of inorganic fertilizers, FYM and bio-inoculants significantly increased wheat grain yield by 206% over control. The non-significant variation in harvest index across treatments is particularly noteworthy. Harvest index represents the efficiency of assimilate partitioning to the economic yield component (grain). Its stability across diverse nutrient management regimes indicates that while INM enhanced total biomass production (source), it also proportionately increased grain yield (sink), maintaining the source-sink equilibrium. This observation suggests that nutrient management primarily influenced the overall crop growth rate rather than the internal carbon allocation priorities of the plant. Similar observations were documented by Singh et al. (2024) [14] and Sharma et al. (2019) [13] , who reported that harvest index remained relatively stable under varying INM combinations, with values typically ranging between 42-46% for wheat.

Comparative Efficacy of FYM and Vermicompost

The consistent trend of vermicompost-based treatments outperforming their FYM counterparts (T 4 > T 3 , T 6 > T 5 , T 8 > T 7 )

across all parameters provides valuable insights for fertilizer recommendations. Vermicompost's superiority can be explained through multiple mechanisms. Firstly, vermicompost undergoes further decomposition by earthworm gut microorganisms, resulting in finer particle size and higher surface area, which enhances nutrient availability and microbial colonization. Secondly, vermicompost contains significantly higher levels of available nutrients, particularly nitrate-nitrogen and available phosphorus, compared to FYM (Liu et al. 2025) [8] . Thirdly, the presence of earthworm cocoons and beneficial microorganisms such as Pseudomonas, Bacillus and Trichoderma in vermicompost contributes to disease suppression and plant growth promotion (Aslam et al. 2025) [2] . However, it is pertinent to note that the difference between T 4 and T 3 , while consistent, was statistically non-significant for most parameters. This finding suggests that both organic amendments, when combined with recommended fertilizer doses, can effectively enhance wheat productivity. From an economic and farmer-adoption perspective, FYM may remain a viable option in regions where vermicompost production facilities are limited, given its comparable performance at the 100% RDN level. The choice between FYM and vermicompost should therefore consider local availability, cost economics and long-term soil health implications (Dwivedi et al. 2025) [4] .

Implications for Fertilizer Reduction

The results from reduced fertilizer treatments (T 5 -T 8 ) offer important insights into the potential for chemical fertilizer reduction without compromising yield. T 6 (75% RDN + 25% N through vermicompost) recorded a grain yield of 38.01 q ha⁻¹, which represents only a 15.2% reduction compared to T 4 (44.84 q ha⁻¹), while achieving a 33.1% increase over control. This finding suggests that a 25% reduction in chemical fertilizer can be effectively compensated through vermicompost supplementation. Such fertilizer reduction strategies have significant implications for sustainable agriculture, including reduced input costs, minimized environmental pollution from nutrient leaching and volatilization and improved long-term soil health (Kumar et al. 2022) [7] . The 50% substitution treatments (T 7 and T 8 ), however, recorded notably lower yields compared to their 75% and 100% RDN counterparts, suggesting that beyond a certain threshold, organic amendments alone cannot fully compensate for the reduced chemical fertilizer input, particularly in soils with inherently low fertility status. This observation is consistent with the findings of Parewa et al. (2022) [10] , who concluded that while INM can reduce chemical fertilizer dependency by 25%, higher substitution rates may result in yield penalties unless supported by high-quality organic inputs and favorable soil conditions.

Regional Relevance and Future Prospects

The findings of this study hold particular relevance for the northwestern Himalayan region, where smallholder farming systems predominate and soil fertility degradation poses a significant threat to agricultural sustainability. The mid-hill zones of Himachal Pradesh are characterized by fragmented landholdings, limited access to synthetic fertilizers and increasing awareness about organic farming. Under these conditions, the integration of locally available organic resources such as FYM and vermicompost with judicious chemical fertilizer use offers a practical and economically viable pathway for sustaining wheat productivity (Verma et al. 2018) [16] . The study's results support the broader national agenda of promoting sustainable agricultural practices aligned with the principles of precision agriculture and natural farming. The demonstrated efficacy of INM in enhancing wheat yield while potentially reducing chemical fertilizer inputs by 25% aligns with government initiatives aimed at reducing fertilizer subsidy burdens and promoting environmentally friendly farming systems. Future research should focus on long-term experiments to assess the cumulative effects of INM on soil carbon sequestration, microbial diversity and overall ecosystem services in the fragile Himalayan agro-ecosystems.

Conclusion

Based on the comprehensive evaluation of integrated nutrient management practices on growth and yield performance of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) variety HPW 360 under the mid-hill conditions of Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. The integrated application of 100% recommended dose of nitrogen along with vermicompost at 2.5 t ha⁻¹ (T 4 ) produced the highest grain yield (44.84 q ha⁻¹), which was 57.1% higher than control and 12.0% higher than sole chemical fertilizer application. 2. All growth parameters (plant height, number of tillers and dry matter accumulation) were significantly enhanced under INM treatments, with vermicompost-based treatments consistently outperforming their FYM counterparts. 3. The integration of organic manures with chemical fertilizers improved both grain and straw yield proportionately, as evidenced by the non-significant variation in harvest index across treatments (range: 43.86-45.42%). 4. A 25% reduction in chemical fertilizer combined with vermicompost (T 6 ) achieved 84.8% of the maximum grain yield, suggesting potential for fertilizer reduction without substantial yield penalty. 5. The findings recommend the adoption of 100% RDN + vermicompost at 2.5 t ha⁻¹ as the optimal INM strategy for wheat cultivation in the northwestern Himalayan region, offering a sustainable balance between productivity enhancement and environmental stewardship.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgmentThe authors express their sincere gratitude to the School of Agriculture, Abhilashi University, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, for providing the necessary facilities and support to conduct this research. Special thanks are extended to the field staff and laboratory personnel for their dedicated assistance throughout the experimental period.

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