Knowledge of rural women regarding household and agricultural waste management: A study from rural Rajasthan

Introduction

Waste is an inevitable by-product of human activities, generated from households, agriculture, industries, and various socio-economic processes. Traditionally, waste has been considered a nuisance-something to be discarded as quickly as possible. However, in recent decades, the concept of waste has evolved significantly, both in academic discourse and in policy frameworks. Waste is no longer merely viewed as refuse, but as a resource that can be managed, reused, and valorised through scientific and sustainable practices (Amasuomo and Baird, 2016) [1] . Rural areas, historically characterised by low industrial activity and predominantly organic domestic refuse, are now experiencing a rapid transformation in waste generation due to changes in consumption patterns, lifestyle shifts, and increased access to packaged goods. This has led to a dual composition of rural waste: biodegradable materials such as food scraps, vegetable peelings, garden residues, and agricultural by-products; and non-biodegradable materials, including plastics, metals, glass, and synthetic packaging (Gautam et al., 2025) [4] . Waste management has become a major environmental and public health concern due to rapid population growth, changing consumption patterns, urbanisation, and increasing generation of biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste. Modern waste management extends beyond collection and disposal to include waste reduction, segregation, recycling, composting, and resource recovery for sustainable development (Vinti and Vaccari, 2022) [16] . The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2024) [14] reported that global municipal solid waste generation exceeds 2.1 billion tonnes annually and is projected to reach www.extensionjournal.com 3.8 billion tonnes by 2050 if current trends continue. In developing countries, inadequate waste management infrastructure and poor disposal practices contribute to environmental pollution, climate change, and public health risks. Therefore, promoting sustainable waste management is essential for achieving environmental sustainability and the Sustainable Development Goals (Kaza et al., 2018) [7] . Rural areas generate considerable quantities of household, agricultural, and livestock waste, predominantly comprising biodegradable organic materials. However, inadequate collection systems, limited recycling and treatment facilities, insufficient financial resources, and weak institutional capacity continue to constrain effective waste management. As a result, open dumping, open burning, and uncontrolled disposal remain widespread, leading to environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, deterioration of soil and water quality, and increased risks to human health (Nguyen et al., 2024) [11] . Despite the significant potential of organic waste for composting, biogas production, and nutrient recovery, its utilisation remains limited because of inadequate awareness, poor technical infrastructure, and low community participation. Strengthening decentralised waste management systems through source segregation, resource recovery, and community-based interventions is therefore essential to improve environmental sustainability, rural sanitation, and circular resource utilisation (Kaza et al., 2018) [7] . Rural women are key stakeholders in household waste management because of their primary responsibility for domestic activities, livestock care, and agricultural operations. They are actively involved in the handling, segregation, reuse, composting, and disposal of household and organic waste, thereby influencing household sanitation, environmental quality, and public health (Mukhter & Chowdhary, 2024) [10] . Despite their critical role, the adoption of scientific waste management practices is often constrained by limited environmental awareness, inadequate technical knowledge, poor institutional support, and sociocultural barriers (Safira & Tumuyu, 2025) [12] . Evidence suggests that enhancing women's knowledge, skills, and participation through targeted awareness and capacitybuilding programmes can significantly improve household waste management practices and promote sustainable rural development. Consequently, strengthening the role of rural women is essential for developing effective communitybased waste management systems and achieving environmental sustainability (Trushna et al., 2024) [13] . Knowledge and practices are essential components of sustainable waste management, as they influence both awareness and the adoption of environmentally responsible behaviours. Adequate knowledge helps households understand the health and environmental impacts of improper waste disposal, while practices such as waste segregation, composting, recycling, and safe disposal improve sanitation and resource conservation. However, knowledge does not always lead to appropriate practices, as socio-economic conditions, education, infrastructure, and institutional support also affect behaviour (Konstantinidou et al., 2024) [8] . Rural women, as the primary managers of household waste, play a crucial role in translating knowledge into sustainable waste management practices. Therefore, assessing both knowledge and practices is important for identifying existing gaps and designing effective awareness, educational, and community-based waste management interventions (Moeini et al., 2024) [9] .

Methodology

The present study was conducted in the Udaipur district of Rajasthan to assess waste management practices among rural women. A multistage random sampling technique was adopted, wherein four panchayat samities, namely Gogunda, Badgaon, Mavli, and Girwa, were selected randomly, followed by the random selection of two villages from each panchayat samiti. From each village, 15 rural women were selected randomly, constituting a total sample of 120 respondents. Data were collected through personal interviews using a structured interview schedule developed through an extensive review of literature and expert consultation. The schedule covered respondents' socioeconomic characteristics, knowledge of waste management, waste management practices, and constraints faced in adopting these practices. The independent variables comprised selected socioeconomic characteristics, while the dependent variables included knowledge, waste management practices, and constraints. Knowledge was measured using a test with a maximum score of 100, practices were assessed on a threepoint continuum (Always = 2, Sometimes = 1, Never = 0) with a maximum score of 50, and constraints were measured on a three-point scale (Most Serious = 3, Serious = 2, Least Serious = 1) with a maximum score of 75. The collected data were classified, tabulated, and analysed using appropriate statistical tools such as frequency, percentage, mean per cent score (MPS).

Results and Dissection

Waste management is essential for environmental sustainability, public health protection, and efficient resource utilization. Adequate knowledge of waste management facilitates the adoption of appropriate waste handling and disposal practices at the household and community levels. This section examines the knowledge of rural women regarding waste management concepts, types of household waste, waste segregation, recycling and reuse, composting and vermicomposting, environmental and health implications of improper waste disposal, sanitation and hygiene practices, government initiatives, and the role of waste management in environmental conservation and community well-being. www.extensionjournal.com The data presented in Table 1 indicate that respondents possessed moderate knowledge regarding waste management, with MPS ranging from 21.60 to 38.12 across the five dimensions studied. Knowledge was highest for the role of improper waste disposal in causing diseases (MPS 38.12), followed by the non-biodegradable nature of plastic waste (MPS 37.50), biodegradability of kitchen waste (MPS 33.96), types of household waste (MPS 25.62), and the meaning of waste management (MPS 21.60). A majority of respondents identified waste management as the proper collection and disposal of waste (75.83%), recognized biodegradable household waste (73.33%), knew that improper waste disposal spreads germs and bacteria (85.83%), that kitchen waste decomposes naturally (83.33%), and that plastic is non-biodegradable (91.67%). Overall, the findings suggest that respondents had better knowledge of the immediate health aspects of waste management than its environmental dimensions. Awareness was comparatively low regarding hazardous household waste (3.33%), recycling and reuse of materials (5.00%), the role of microorganisms in decomposition (12.50%), conversion of kitchen waste into organic manure (9.17%), plastic causing environmental pollution (9.17%), and waste reduction, environmental protection, and plastic accumulation in soil and water (2.50% each). These results indicate limited understanding of environmental sustainability and the long-term ecological implications of improper waste management. The findings are in agreement with those of Kaithery et al. (2024) [5] who reported that among 400 households in Cheruthazham Panchayat, Kerala, 79.2 per cent of respondents possessed average knowledge regarding household waste management, followed by 19.2 per cent with good knowledge and only 1.5 per cent with poor knowledge. The predominance of respondents with average knowledge highlights the need for continued awareness and educational interventions to enhance understanding and adoption of sustainable waste management practices. [6] who conducted a study among 708 households in Delhi and found that knowledge of waste segregation significantly influenced household waste management practices. The study further revealed that awareness regarding waste segregation methods and proper waste handling was positively associated with improved waste management behaviour, emphasizing the importance of knowledge dissemination in promoting effective household waste management practices. The data presented in Table 3 indicate that respondents possessed moderate knowledge regarding agricultural waste utilization and composting practices, with MPS ranging from 40.00 to 43.54. Knowledge was highest for vermicomposting (MPS 43.54), followed by the conversion of organic waste into compost manure (MPS 42.92) and the benefits of compost manure in agriculture (MPS 40.00). An overwhelming majority correctly identified that earthworms convert organic waste into manure (95.83%), compost manure improves soil fertility (90.00%), and compost is produced through the natural decomposition of organic waste (87.50%). In contrast, awareness was comparatively lower regarding the role of microorganisms in decomposition (35.00%), production of nutrient-rich manure through composting (26.67%), use of compost pits or compost bins (22.50%), reduction of organic waste through vermicomposting (20.83%), and production of nutrient-rich compost (20.00%).

Overall, the findings suggest that respondents were well informed about the basic principles of composting and vermicomposting but had limited knowledge of their broader agronomic and environmental benefits. Awareness was particularly low regarding the role of compost manure in reducing chemical fertilizer use (11.67%) and utilizing organic waste (15.00%). These findings are consistent with Bhatia et al. (2024) [2] , who reported that sustainable practices such as composting, vermicomposting, biochar production, and anaerobic digestion effectively convert agricultural organic waste into valuable resources, thereby improving soil fertility, nutrient availability, environmental sustainability, and reducing pollution and soil degradation. www.extensionjournal.com Collectively, these studies underscore the importance of sustained awareness and extension programmes to strengthen knowledge of government initiatives and promote long-term adoption of improved sanitation and waste management practices.

Conclusion

The present study demonstrates that rural women possessed a moderate level of knowledge regarding waste management, with considerable variation across different knowledge domains. Respondents exhibited relatively high awareness of household waste management and sanitation practices, as evidenced by their recognition that earthworms convert organic waste into manure (95.83%), plastic is nonbiodegradable (91.67%), sanitation prevents diseases (91.67%), recycling involves the reuse of waste materials (91.67%), compost improves soil fertility (90.00%), kitchen waste decomposes naturally (89.17%), and the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is a major government sanitation initiative (89.17%). These findings indicate that rural women are well informed about routine waste handling practices and their immediate implications for household hygiene and public health. Despite this encouraging level of awareness, important deficiencies were identified in respondents' understanding of scientific waste management and environmental sustainability. Awareness was particularly limited regarding plastic accumulation in soil and water (2.50%), hazardous waste (3.33%), the contribution of waste management to community health (4.17%), government waste management schemes (5.83%), the impact of water pollution on aquatic ecosystems (5.00%), and the role of composting in reducing chemical fertilizer use (11.67%). These gaps suggest that knowledge remains largely confined to observable www.extensionjournal.com household practices, whereas awareness of the long-term environmental, ecological, and institutional dimensions of waste management is inadequate. Overall, the findings underscore the need for targeted awareness campaigns, extension programmes, and capacitybuilding interventions that strengthen rural women's understanding of waste segregation, recycling, scientific composting, resource recovery, and government waste management initiatives. Enhancing environmental literacy and promoting community-based participation in sustainable waste management will improve household sanitation, reduce environmental pollution, and contribute to the achievement of sustainable rural development and circular economy objectives.

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