Farmers' perceptions and attitudes towards basmati rice cultivation in western Uttar Pradesh: An empirical study

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa) is a staple food for about half of the world's population, with the majority living in Asia. Rice meets 23% of global human/capita calorie needs and 16% of per capita protein requirements. It also provides a significant source of income for more than 250 million people. More than 90% of the world's rice is cultivated and consumed in Asia, which accounts for 60% of the global population. In a resolution, the United Nations General Assembly designated 2004 as the "International Year of Rice," a designation with enormous implications for food security. Rice is cultivated on 136.642 hectares of land in Asia. India has the world's largest rice-growing area (44.6 million ha) and is the world's second-largest rice producer after China. It is the primary source of nutrition for 65 percent of India's population. It accounts for around 23.3 percent of the country's gross cropped area. It is critical to the country's food grain supply. Rice accounts for 43 percent of the country's total food grain production and 46 percent of its overall cereal production. It covers an area of around 43.70 million hectares in India, with a total production of 112.91 million tons and a yield of 2.4 tons per hectare. It is planted on 5.81 million ha in Uttar Pradesh, with a total yield of 13.27 million tons and a productivity of 2.5 tons per ha. (DAC&FW, 2019).

Western Uttar Pradesh is one of the major basmati rice-growing regions of India because of its fertile alluvial soils, favorable agro-climatic conditions, reliable irrigation facilities, and wellestablished market linkages (APEDA, 2024) [2] . Districts such as Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Shamli, Baghpat, Meerut, Bijnor, and Bulandshahar have witnessed a considerable expansion in the cultivation of premium basmati varieties over the past two decades (Sharma et al., 2022) [18] . The increasing domestic and international demand for premium-quality basmati rice has encouraged many farmers to diversify from conventional rice cultivation towards basmati production, owing to its comparatively higher market prices and export potential (Kumar et al., 2021) [24] . Despite its economic advantages, basmati rice cultivation is associated with several production and marketing challenges. Farmers frequently encounter fluctuating market prices, rising cultivation costs, pest and disease incidence, labor shortages, climate variability, water scarcity, and stringent quality standards for export markets (Kumar & Meena, 2020; Singh & Yadav, 2019) [6,19] . These challenges influence farmers' decisions regarding crop management, investment in improved production technologies, and continued cultivation of basmati rice. Consequently, understanding farmers' perceptions and attitudes towards basmati rice cultivation is essential for designing effective agricultural extension strategies and policy interventions. Perception refers to farmers' understanding, interpretation, and evaluation of the benefits, risks, and constraints associated with a technology or enterprise, whereas attitude represents their favorable or unfavorable predisposition towards its adoption and continued practice (Ajzen, 1991; Rogers, 2003) [1,14] . Positive perceptions regarding profitability, market opportunities, environmental sustainability, and technological feasibility often strengthen favorable attitudes and encourage sustained cultivation (Feder et al., 1985) [5] . Conversely, negative perceptions stemming from production risks, price uncertainty, or inadequate institutional support may reduce farmers' willingness to invest in the crop (Meena & Singh, 2017) [8] . Therefore, farmers' perceptions and attitudes play a pivotal role in shaping production decisions and influencing the long-term sustainability of basmati rice cultivation. Agricultural extension services serve as an important mechanism for enhancing farmers' knowledge, improving access to scientific recommendations, facilitating marketoriented production, and promoting climate-resilient cultivation practices (Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010) [22] . Extension agencies, research institutions, Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), and digital advisory platforms have increasingly focused on disseminating improved basmati production technologies, integrated pest management practices, water-efficient cultivation methods, and postharvest quality management (Singh et al., 2017; Meena et al., 2018) [20,9] . However, the effectiveness of these interventions largely depends on farmers' perceptions, attitudes, and willingness to adopt recommended practices (Rogers, 2003) [14] . Although numerous studies have examined the economics, production technologies, and adoption of improved agricultural practices in rice cultivation (Kumar et al., 2021; Sharma et al., 2022) [18] , comparatively fewer empirical investigations have simultaneously explored farmers' perceptions and attitudes towards basmati rice cultivation in the socio-economic and institutional context of Western Uttar Pradesh. Understanding these behavioral dimensions is essential for identifying the opportunities and constraints affecting sustainable basmati production and for developing farmer-centered extension programs. Against this background, the present study seeks to examine farmers' perceptions and attitudes towards basmati rice cultivation in Western Uttar Pradesh. The findings are expected to provide valuable insights for agricultural extension professionals, researchers, policymakers, and development agencies in formulating evidencebased strategies to enhance productivity, profitability, and the long-term sustainability of basmati rice cultivation in the region.

Literature Review

Basmati rice cultivation has attracted considerable attention from researchers because of its economic significance, export potential, and contribution to rural livelihoods (Singh et al., 2018; Kumar & Singh, 2020) [21,6] . Previous studies have primarily focused on production technologies, varietal improvement, profitability, water-use efficiency, export competitiveness, and the adoption of recommended cultivation practices (Chaudhary et al., 2017; Sharma et al., 2019) [3,17] . These studies consistently indicate that basmati cultivation offers higher economic returns than conventional rice under favorable market conditions, although profitability is strongly influenced by input costs, market price fluctuations, quality standards, and environmental risks (Kumar et al., 2021) [24] . Farmers' decisions regarding basmati cultivation are shaped not only by economic considerations but also by their perceptions of production risks, expected returns, market accessibility, institutional support, and the availability of extension services (Rogers, 2003; Meena et al., 2016) [14] . Positive perceptions of premium prices, export demand, higher incomes, and improved resource-use efficiency encourage farmers to continue cultivating basmati rice (Singh & Yadav, 2019) [19] . Conversely, concerns about price volatility, pest and disease incidence, labor shortages, climate variability, delayed payments, and strict quality requirements often discourage investment in the crop (Kumar & Meena, 2020) [6] . Recent evidence also highlights that watersaving rice cultivation practices and premium basmati varieties are increasingly viewed as attractive options due to groundwater depletion and shifting market demand (Sharma et al., 2022) [18] . Agricultural extension plays a critical role in influencing farmers' perceptions and attitudes by improving access to scientific knowledge, advisory services, quality seed, integrated nutrient and pest management, and market information (Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010; Singh et al., 2017) [22,20] . Extension interventions, including demonstrations, farmer training programs, digital advisory platforms, and farmer-tofarmer learning, enhance farmers' confidence in recommended technologies and strengthen their willingness to adopt improved cultivation practices (Meena et al., 2018) [9] . However, the effectiveness of these interventions varies according to farmers' educational level, farming experience, landholding size, social participation, and institutional linkages (Kumar et al., 2019) [7] . Behavioral research in agriculture has demonstrated that perception and attitude are important determinants of farmers' decision-making (Ajzen, 1991; Rogers, 2003) [1,14] . Farmers who perceive agricultural technologies as profitable, compatible with existing farming systems, and relatively easy to implement generally exhibit more favorable attitudes towards adoption (Feder et al., 1985) [5] . In contrast, uncertainty about production risks, marketing opportunities, and policy support may lead to hesitant or negative attitudes, thereby limiting the adoption of improved agricultural practices (Meena & Singh, 2017) [8] . Although previous studies have examined the economics of basmati production, varietal performance, adoption of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), and production constraints, relatively limited empirical research has simultaneously analyzed farmers' perceptions and attitudes towards basmati rice cultivation in Western Uttar Pradesh (Kumar et al., 2020) [6] . Existing studies often emphasize technological or economic dimensions while giving comparatively less attention to behavioral aspects that influence farmers' cultivation decisions. Furthermore, evidence integrating socio-economic characteristics with perception and attitude in the context of one of India's major basmati-producing regions remains inadequate.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted during 2023-24 in four major basmati rice-producing districts of Western Uttar Pradesh. A descriptive research design was adopted. A multistage sampling technique was employed, in which four districts were purposively selected based on the largest area under basmati rice cultivation, followed by the selection of two blocks from each district and two villages from each block. A total of 244 basmati rice farmers were selected through proportionate random sampling. Primary data were collected using a pre-tested structured interview schedule comprising respondents' socio-economic characteristics, 15 perception statements, and 15 attitude statements measured on a five-point Likert scale. Secondary information was collected from published reports and records. The collected data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, percentages, means, and weighted mean scores (WMS), were used to summarize the data. Pearson's correlation coefficient, chisquare test, multiple regression analysis, and Garrett ranking technique were employed to examine relationships and identify the major factors and constraints associated with basmati rice cultivation.

Results and Discussion

Socio-economic Profile of the Respondents

The socio-economic characteristics of respondents provide valuable insights into the background of the farming community and help explain variations in farmers' perceptions and attitudes towards basmati rice cultivation. A total of 244 basmati rice farmers from four major basmati-growing districts of Western Uttar Pradesh participated in the study. The average age of the respondents was 45.47±13.21 years, indicating that the majority were economically active and experienced farmers. The respondents had an average farming experience of 13.95±9.03 years, and an average experience in basmati rice cultivation of 7.45±6.24 years, suggesting that most farmers had considerable practical exposure to basmati production. The average operational landholding of the respondents was 6.23±3.37 acres, reflecting the predominance of small-and medium-scale farming systems in the study area. On average, respondents reported an annual household income of F4, 66, 222±F2, 18, 899, while the mean basmati rice productivity was 15.98±3.51 quintals per acre. Overall, the socio-economic profile indicates that basmati rice cultivation in Western Uttar Pradesh is undertaken primarily by experienced, middle-aged farmers with moderate landholdings.

Although farmers have accumulated considerable production experience, their relatively low participation in formal training programs, FPOs, and crop insurance schemes suggests opportunities to strengthen agricultural extension services and institutional support to enhance the sustainability and profitability of basmati rice cultivation.

Farmers' Perceptions towards Basmati Rice Cultivation

Farmers' perceptions play a crucial role in influencing their decision-making and continued engagement in basmati rice cultivation. To assess respondents' perceptions, 15 statements covering different dimensions of basmati rice cultivation were measured on a 5-point Likert scale. The weighted mean score (WMS) was computed for each statement, and statements were ranked accordingly. A higher WMS indicates a more favorable perception. The weighted mean scores ranged from 2.88 to 3.09, indicating that respondents generally exhibited a moderately favorable perception towards basmati rice cultivation. Among the fifteen statements, the statement "Basmati rice cultivation provides higher market price compared to non-basmati rice" obtained the highest weighted mean score (WMS = 3.09), suggesting that respondents strongly recognized the price advantage associated with basmati rice. This was followed by "Basmati rice cultivation is more profitable than other crops" (WMS = 3.07) and "Improved basmati varieties enhance productivity" (WMS = 3.07), indicating that profitability and technological improvements were perceived positively by the farmers. Similarly, statements related to export demand, income enhancement, and availability of quality seeds also received relatively higher scores, reflecting farmers' awareness of market opportunities and input-related factors influencing basmati cultivation. Conversely, the statement "Basmati rice cultivation is risky compared to other crops" recorded the lowest weighted mean score (WMS = 2.88), followed by "Lack of timely technical guidance affects basmati production" (WMS = 2.92) and "Labour requirement is higher in basmati cultivation" (WMS = 2.93), suggesting comparatively weaker agreement with these aspects. Although these items received relatively lower scores, their values remained close to the neutral point of the scale, indicating that farmers neither strongly disagreed nor strongly agreed with the corresponding statements.

Overall, the findings suggest that basmati rice farmers in Western Uttar Pradesh possess a generally positive perception of basmati rice cultivation. However, the moderate scores indicate opportunities to strengthen farmers' confidence through improved extension services, capacitybuilding programs, timely technical guidance, market information, and institutional support. Addressing the aspects reflected in the lower-ranked perception statements may further enhance farmers' confidence and encourage wider adoption of improved basmati production practices.

Farmers' Attitudes towards Basmati Rice Cultivation

Attitude reflects the degree of favorableness or unavoidableness of farmers towards basmati rice cultivation and significantly influences their production decisions and willingness to continue cultivating the crop. In the present study, farmers' attitudes were measured using a structured attitude scale comprising 12 statements rated on a five-point Likert continuum. The weighted mean score (WMS) was calculated for each statement, and the statements were ranked accordingly. A higher WMS indicates a more favourable attitude towards basmati rice cultivation. The weighted mean scores ranged from 2.87 to 3.18, indicating that respondents generally exhibited a moderately favourable attitude towards basmati rice cultivation. The highest-ranked statement, "Basmati rice cultivation is a profitable farming enterprise" (WMS = 3.18), suggests that profitability remains the primary motivating factor influencing farmers' attitudes. This was followed by "I intend to continue cultivating basmati rice in the future" (WMS = 3.15) and "I am willing to adopt improved technologies for basmati cultivation" (WMS = 3.13), reflecting farmers' confidence in the long-term economic viability of basmati cultivation and their openness to technological innovations. Statements related to improved household income, recommending basmati cultivation to fellow farmers, and the usefulness of scientific recommendations also received comparatively high scores. These findings indicate that respondents generally perceive basmati rice cultivation as an economically rewarding and sustainable enterprise when supported by appropriate production technologies and extension services. The comparatively lower scores for statements related to marketing facilities, production risks, and price fluctuations indicate that farmers remain concerned about market uncertainty and production-related challenges. These issues may negatively influence future investment decisions if not addressed through effective policy interventions, market stabilization mechanisms, and strengthened extension support. Overall, the findings reveal that farmers possess a favourable attitude towards basmati rice cultivation, primarily driven by expectations of higher profitability and improved livelihoods. However, strengthening institutional support, improving market infrastructure, minimizing production risks, and enhancing access to timely technical advisory services are essential for sustaining these positive attitudes and promoting long-term adoption of improved basmati cultivation practices.

Distribution of Respondents According to Overall Perception and Attitude Levels

To obtain an overall understanding of farmers' behavioral disposition towards basmati rice cultivation, the total perception and attitude scores of the respondents were classified into three categories, namely low, medium, and high, using the mean and standard deviation method. The distribution of respondents across these categories provides an overview of prevailing perceptions and attitudes among basmati rice farmers in Western Uttar Pradesh. The classification of respondents based on their overall perception indicates that the majority of farmers (56.56%) belonged to the medium perception category, followed by the high (22.13%) and low (21.31%) perception categories. This suggests that most farmers possessed a reasonably good understanding of the economic, technological, and institutional aspects of basmati rice cultivation. However, the presence of respondents with low perception highlights the need for targeted extension interventions, farmer training programmes, and timely dissemination of technical information to improve awareness and informed decision-making. The overall attitude of the respondents revealed that most farmers (58.20%) exhibited a moderately favourable attitude towards basmati rice cultivation, followed by those with high (22.13%) and low (19.67%) attitude levels. A favourable attitude reflects farmers' confidence in the profitability and future prospects of basmati cultivation, whereas comparatively less favourable attitudes may arise from concerns regarding production risks, fluctuating market prices, labour scarcity, and inadequate institutional support. The findings emphasize the importance of strengthening agricultural extension services, improving market linkages, and promoting climateresilient production practices to reinforce positive attitudes and encourage sustainable basmati rice cultivation.

Relationship between Selected Socio-economic Characteristics and Farmers' Perception and Attitude towards Basmati Rice Cultivation

To examine the association between selected socio-economic characteristics and farmers' perception and attitude towards basmati rice cultivation, Pearson's correlation coefficient was employed. The analysis helps identify the variables that significantly influence farmers' behavioural orientation towards basmati cultivation. The correlation analysis revealed that selected socio-economic characteristics exhibited varying degrees of association with farmers' perception and attitude towards basmati rice cultivation. Education, extension contact, training received, productivity, and annual income showed a strong positive and highly significant relationship with both perception and attitude, indicating that farmers with better access to knowledge, resources, and institutional support tend to have more favourable views towards basmati rice cultivation. Farming experience, basmati cultivation experience, landholding, social participation, and FPO membership also exhibited positive and significant relationships, suggesting that practical exposure and involvement in social and institutional networks contribute to improved understanding and favourable attitudes. Age, however, showed a positive but non-significant relationship with both perception and attitude, indicating that age alone does not play a decisive role in shaping farmers' behavioural orientation. The findings imply that factors such as educational attainment, farming experience, extension contact, training participation, and institutional linkage significantly strengthen farmers' confidence in basmati rice cultivation. Enhanced access to technical knowledge and institutional support can improve farmers' understanding of recommended production practices, increase awareness of market opportunities, and promote positive attitudes towards sustainable cultivation. The observed relationships are consistent with agricultural extension research, which suggests that socio-economic and communication characteristics play an important role in shaping farmers' knowledge, perceptions, and technology adoption behavior. Strengthening extension services, improving access to training, and promoting farmer organizations can therefore facilitate favorable behavioral changes among basmati growers and encourage the adoption of improved cultivation practices.

Summary and Conclusion

The present study examined farmers' perceptions and attitudes towards basmati rice cultivation in Western Uttar Pradesh. A descriptive research design was employed, and data were collected from 244 basmati rice farmers selected through a multistage sampling technique. The study assessed farmers' socio-economic characteristics, perceptions, and attitudes, and examined the relationships between selected socio-economic variables and behavioral dimensions using appropriate statistical tools. The findings revealed that the respondents were predominantly middle-aged, experienced farmers with moderate landholdings and substantial involvement in basmati rice cultivation. More than half of the respondents (56.56%) exhibited a medium level of perception, while 58.20% demonstrated a moderately favorable attitude towards basmati rice cultivation. Farmers perceived higher market prices, profitability, improved productivity, and export potential as the major advantages of cultivating basmati rice. However, concerns regarding production risks, inadequate technical guidance, labour requirements, and market price fluctuations persisted. Correlation analysis indicated that education, extension contact, training received, annual income, productivity, and farming experience were positively and significantly associated with farmers' perceptions and attitudes. These findings suggest that access to knowledge, institutional support, and technical advisory services positively influence farmers' behavioural orientation towards basmati rice cultivation. The study concludes that although farmers generally possess favourable perceptions and attitudes towards basmati rice cultivation, strengthening agricultural extension services, enhancing capacity-building programmes, promoting Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), and improving market and institutional support are essential for sustaining farmers' confidence and encouraging wider adoption of improved cultivation practices. Policy interventions focusing on farmer training, timely technical guidance, market intelligence, and risk management mechanisms will contribute to enhancing the profitability, sustainability, and competitiveness of basmati rice cultivation in Western Uttar Pradesh.

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