From urban waste to organic wealth: recycling tender coconut husk for sustainable agriculture

Introduction

Tender coconut water is a refreshing natural beverage with considerable nutritional and therapeutic values. The growing demand for tender coconut water has led to a substantial increase in the generation of a biowaste i.e., tender coconut husk, particularly around tender coconut parlours, urban marketplaces, and temple premises [1] . This issue becomes more significant as the husk accounts for nearly 60-65 per cent of the total weight of a tender coconut [2] . The discarded husks retain moisture and provide favourable breeding conditions for mosquitoes, thereby increasing the risk of vector-borne diseases, especially during the monsoon season [3] . Uncontrolled burning of husk contributes to environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emission [4] . As such, the environmental and health concerns posed by this biowaste especially in thickly populated urban sites is quite enormous. Due to their hardy texture and lignin rich nature, these residues remain undecomposed for long [5] , which is yet another problem. As a disposal mechanism, the husks are periodically transported from urban regions to rural sites and land-filling tracts. However, prospects are much high for recycling this biowaste to valuable bioresource in support of sustainable agriculture. Despite these disposal challenges, tender coconut husk (TCH) possesses considerable potential for value addition because of its fibrous and biodegradable composition. Tender coconut husk has the potential for conversion into several useful products including compost, biochar, activated carbon, biodegradable containers, biofuel briquettes and many such products [6] . In this context, exploring sustainable and economically viable approaches for the utilization of tender coconut husk has become increasingly important. The fibre extracted from the coconut mesocarp are inexpensive, renewable, recyclable, and non-poisonous, making them highly suitable for agricultural and environmental applications [7] .

Recycling of tender coconut husk to TCH compost

Tender coconut husks are primarily composed of lignin (30-42%), cellulose (54-65%), and hemicellulose (7-13%) [8] . As the biomass is predominantly lignocellulosic in nature, husks exhibit high resistance to microbial degradation under natural conditions. As a result, complete decomposition of tender coconut waste may require more than two years if left unmanaged [9] . Among the various sustainable utilization strategies, composting has emerged as one of the most practical and environmentally beneficial approaches for managing tender coconut husk waste. Composting refers to the biological transformation of organic residues into stable humus-like materials, which helps in improving soil fertility and soil structure [10] . Composting increases the nutrient value of coir pith, reduce the wider C:N ratio, and also to reduce the lignin and cellulose content. Application of coir pith compost increase the soil native micro flora, water holding capacity and organic carbon status of the soil [11] .

A study conducted at Faculty of Agriculture, Annamalai University, [12] revealed that coir pith compost, a material similar to THC compost applied @ 10 t ha -1 increase grain yield of barnyard millet by 21 per cent and straw yield by 23 per cent compared to application bone meal powder @ 1 t ha -1 .

Co-composting as a promising composting strategy for TCH

Co-composting refers to the aerobic decomposition of more than one organic residues simultaneously to produce a stable, humusrich material with enhanced nutrient value. Compared with composting of a single substrate, co-composting helps overcome limitations such as nutrient imbalance, slow degradation, and poor microbial activity [13] . Organic residues possessing high nitrogen content and a narrow C:N ratio, such as animal manures, are often combined with carbon-rich bulking materials to maintain favourable conditions for microbial growth and aeration during decomposition [14] . In this context, tender coconut husk serves as an excellent carbonaceous substrate because of its fibrous and lignocellulosic composition. Co-composting of tender coconut husk with other organic materials helps balance nutrient availability, regulate moisture content, and enhance microbial degradation. Several additives and co-substrates including fly ash, phosphate rock, jaggery, biochar, pig manure, and wood chips have been reported to improve composting efficiency and nutrient enrichment [15] . Similarly, supplementation with nitrogen-rich organic sources such as poultry manure, leguminous biomass, farmyard manure, and oil cakes can effectively lower the C:N ratio of the composting mixture, thereby accelerating decomposition [16] . The biodegradation coconut waste can be further enhanced through the inoculation of lignocellulose-degrading microorganisms. Fungal species such as Aspergillus, Trichoderma, and Pleurotus are effective because of their extensive hyphal growth and ability to secrete extracellular enzymes capable of degrading complex lignin and cellulose fractions [17] . Since tender coconut husk contains nearly 80 per cent moisture [18] . maintaining proper aeration and microbial balance becomes essential for efficient compost maturation. Moreover, amendments such as rock phosphate and lime enrich the nutrient content and also weaken the lignocellulosic complexes, thereby facilitating faster decomposition of the husks [19] .

A recent study at Kerala Agricultural University, [20] revealed that addition of poultry manure (10 kg), FYM (5 kg), lime (0.5 kg), rock phosphate (0.5 kg) and 250 g of Trichoderma asperellum (talc based) to 90 kg of shredded tender coconut husk resulted in good quality and nutrient rich compost. The microbial load of the compost was higher and the composting process was fast enough in generating mature compost within 60 days time. The study also confirmed that TCH compost applied @ 20 t ha -1 could increase the yield of leafy vegetable amaranthus by 21 per cent compared to application of FYM @ 25 t ha -1 . There are several other reports regarding the effective use of coir pith compost, a material similar to THC compost, as good organic manure. The use of coir pith compost as manure @ 5 t ha -1 for maize and reported 17 per cent yield enhancement compared to the use of FYM at a higher quantity. The same study also noted that yield attributes of maize viz., number of grains per cob also increased upto 15 per cent with the supply of coir pith compost compared to FYM addition. They attributed the improvement in yield attributes to the better retention of soil moisture in field which occurred due to the addition of water retaining compost [21] .

Vermicomposting

In addition to the conventional composting and co-composting techniques, vermicomposting has emerged as an efficient and eco-friendly approach for the bioconversion of tender coconut waste into nutrient-rich organic manure. Vermicomposting is widely recognized as a sustainable waste management technology that transforms organic residues into high value organic manure through the activity of earthworms [22] . Vermicomposting process involves bio-oxidation and stabilization of organic matter mediated by earthworms along with diverse microbial populations present in the substrate [23] . Studies have reported substantial increases in nitrogen and phosphorus levels of tender coconut waste degraded with Eudrilus eugenia by 158 per cent and 130 per cent, respectively, compared to raw tender coconut waste. In addition to macronutrients, micronutrients such as copper iron, zinc, and manganese were also found to increase, thereby enhancing its agronomic value [24] . The application of vermicomposting technology to tender coconut waste has shown promising results in reducing decomposition time and improving compost quality. Biodegradation of tender coconut residues using the earthworm species Eudrilus eugeniae significantly shortened the composting period, with mature vermicompost being obtained within 65-70 days and a compost recovery rate of nearly 63 per cent of the substrate. The resulting vermicompost exhibited a near-neutral pH ranging from 6.9-7.3, indicating its suitability for agricultural applications [25] . Incorporating suitable organic amendments during vermicomposting enhance nutrient recovery and improve the overall nutrient value of resulting compost. In this context, vermicomposting of coconut husk supplemented with pig slurry in 80:20 ratio by weight demonstrated superior performance, resulting in higher concentrations of nitrogen (2.1%), phosphorus (1.4%), and potassium (1.1%). This combination also achieved a fertilizer index of 4.7, which was considerably greater than that obtained from vermicomposting coconut husk alone (2.7) [26] .

Biochar from Tender coconut husk

Apart from compost-based recycling approaches, thermochemical conversion of tender coconut waste into biochar has emerged as another promising strategy for sustainable management of the residue. Biochar is a stable, carbon-rich, and highly porous material produced through the pyrolysis of biomass under oxygen-limited [27] . The production of biochar from coconut biomass involves a series of controlled processing steps. Initially, Coconut biomass residues are sun-dried and layered within kilns, where they undergo carbonization at 350-450 °C for 2-6 hours. Combustion is halted by sprinkling water, after which the cooled biochar is crushed into coarse particles. The material is then sieved to obtain a particle size of 1.5-3.0 mm and stored for future agricultural applications [28] . The conversion of tender coconut waste into biochar offers multiple agronomic and environmental benefits. The application of biochar to soil can improve its physical, chemical, and biological properties, thereby enhancing crop growth, productivity, and economic returns. Owing to its highly porous structure and large surface area, biochar possesses a remarkable capacity to adsorb and gradually release water and nutrients, while simultaneously stabilizing carbon within the soil system and reducing carbon emissions into the atmosphere [29] . These characteristics make tender coconut husk biochar an effective soil amendment for improving nutrient retention. Characterization studies reported that biochar produced from tender coconut husk possesses favourable chemical properties, including alkaline pH (8.53), high total organic carbon content (70.10%), and appreciable cation exchange capacity (15.26 cmol kg⁻¹). The biochar also contains essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen (1.52%), phosphorus (0.40%), potassium (2.26%) and considerable quantities of calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, manganese, boron.The abundance of exchangeable cations such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium further highlights the ability of biochar to function as a temporary nutrient reservoir, thereby reducing nutrient losses through leaching [30] . Furthermore, the concentrations of heavy metals including Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr, Zn, and Cu in TCH biochar were well below permissible threshold limits, indicating its safety for agricultural application [31] . Biochar-induced improvements in soil aggregation, porosity, and water retention can also reduce soil erosion and phosphorus loss from agricultural lands [32] . Such modifications are particularly beneficial in degraded and compacted soils where restricted aeration and low oxygen diffusion adversely affect root growth and microbial activity. In a study conducted at college of agriculture, vellayani, experimented with the application of TCH biochar as organic manure for yard long bean, biochar applied @ 20 t ha -1 along with PGPR (2%) and NPK fertilizers (20:30:10 kg ha -1 ) significantly increased the yield characters of yard long bean such as pod length by 20.31 per cent (54.50 cm), pod girth by 36.84 per cent (3.90 cm), mean pod weight by 18.04 per cent (26.63 g) and number of pods per plant by 30.77 per cent (51), compared to the control treatment that had not received biochar [33] . Similarly, the pot culture study found that amending soil with tender coconut husk biochar and coconut leaf vermicompost enhanced dry matter accumulation, arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization, root nodulation, and microbial activity in cowpea compared to soil amended with coconut leaf vermicompost alone. The study also demonstrated that the combined application of tender coconut husk biochar and coconut leaf vermicompost increased chilli yield by 50 per cent compared to non-amended soils [28] . THC biochar has also shown considerable potential as soil amendment in alleviating the adverse effects of soil compaction. Reduced soil pore space, poor aeration, and restricted root proliferation commonly observed in compacted soils could be mitigated through the incorporation of tender coconut husk biochar. Improvements in root growth and fresh root biomass following coconut-derived biochar application have been reported in chilli and ginger cultivation systems [34] [35] . TCH biochar applied @ 10 t ha -¹, FYM @ 5 t ha -¹ and recommended fertilizer dose 55:35:70 kg ha -1 of NPK increased fruit yield of okra upto 69 per cent compared to the conventional nutrient management practices alone without biochar addition [36] .

Tender coconut husk based potting media

Tender coconut husk has also gained considerable attention as a sustainable component in potting media for nursery and greenhouse crop production. Artificial substrates widely used in containerized cultivation systems and are generally composed of materials such as peat, silt, farmyard manure, vermiculite, and compost. These components largely determine the bulk density, porosity, aeration, and water-holding capacity of the growing medium. Recycling coconut waste into potting media helps tackle waste management issues in coconut producing areas [37] . The incorporation of coconut husk-based materials into potting mixtures can significantly reduce the overall weight of the media, thereby facilitating easier handling, transportation, and management of nursery containers [38] . Coconut-derived substrates have shown promising performance in soilless cultivation systems, particularly for high-value vegetable crops such as tomato [39] . Due to the shorter fibre length and spongy structure of tender coconut husk, the material can be effectively composted and processed into a lightweight growing medium with favourable physical characteristics. Compared to peat, coconut husk is generally less acidic and exhibits relatively higher electrical conductivity, making it a suitable substitute for peat-based media in crops such as lettuce [40] . Adequate water retention in potting media is essential for minimizing water loss, nutrient leaching, and surface runoff. Media possessing water-holding capacities greater than 35 per cent are considered ideal for container crop production [41] . In this context, potting media containing coconut husk had recorded higher water-holding capacity (41.34%) compared to conventional mixtures containing only silt and farmyard manure (31.35%), resulting in improved plant growth and development [42] . Coconut husk possess comparatively low bulk density (0.18 g cm⁻³), low particle density (0.8 g cm⁻³), high porosity and appreciable cation exchange capacity, enabling efficient retention of essential nutrients such as potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium [43] .Similar findings confirmed that coconut husk dust contributes to improved porosity and lightweight characteristics of growing media [44] .

Other Uses of tender coconut husk in agriculture

In addition to its applications in composting, biochar production, potting media preparation, and energy generation, tender coconut husk has several other important uses that enhance its value as a versatile biomass resource in sustainable systems. The inherent fibrous structure, high lignocellulosic content, and durability of coconut residues make them suitable for a wide range of environmental, agricultural, and industrial applications. Due to slow decomposition rate and high moisture retention capacity, coconut husk provides long-lasting soil cover and minimizes evaporative water loss [45] . Field studies have shown that mulching with coconut husk can significantly improve crop performance. Nutmeg cultivated under coconut husk mulch recorded 11.9 per cent higher yield compared to paddy straw mulch [46] . In addition, coconut husk cover has been reported to reduce soil erosion and runoff substantially, with nearly two times lower soil loss compared to bare soil conditions [47] . Coconut husk burial in staggered trenches is another effective technique for conserving soil moisture in coconut and arecanut plantations. The husks are placed with the concave side facing upward in trenches about 45-75 cm depth and convenient length and width helping to maintain moisture during dry periods and enrich the soil with nutrients, particularly potassium [48] . Adoption of coconut husk burial techniques in trenches of 3.5 m length, 1 m width and 0.5 m depth across the slope between two rows of cashew plants improve the water retention in the soil for longer periods [49] . Incorporation of coconut husk fibre has led to improvement in tensile strength, elongation at break, and surface hardness of bio composite materials making them suitable for packaging applications [50] . The pulp extract from tender coconut husk can be utilised in making paper plates, cups, glass covers, and garden articles such as paper pots for seedling and packaging by moulding into the desired shape and size [2] .

Conclusion

The increasing consumption of tender coconuts in urban and peri-urban areas has led to the accumulation of large quantities of husk waste, which is often poorly managed and becomes an environmental burden due to its slow natural decomposition. However, this lignocellulosic, carbon-rich biomass can be effectively converted into valuable resources through sustainable approaches such as co-composting, vermicomposting, and biochar production, which enhance soil fertility, carbon sequestration, and nutrient retention. Husk can also be utilized as potting media component and as good quality mulch. Beyond agriculture, tender coconut husk finds applications in renewable energy, wastewater treatment, erosion control, and coir-based industries. Overall, its utilization supports circular economy principles by transforming waste into useful products, while promoting environmental sustainability and resource efficiency. Essentially this urban waste can be recycled as organic wealth in promotion of sustainable agriculture.

References

1. Sanganamoni S, Mallesh S, Vandana K, Rao P. Thermal treatment of tender coconut water-enzyme inactivation and biochemical characterization. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2017;6(5):2919-2931.
2. Pandiselvam R, Manikantan MR, Ramesh SV, Rintu VF, Athira S, Beegum S, et al. Tender coconut husk-various uses. Indian Coconut Journal. 2021;63(12):8-11.
3. Dumasari D, Darmawan W, Iqbal A, Dharmawan B, Santosa I. A pro-conservation adaptation power model for Cococraft craftsmen using coconut waste in Purbalingga, Central Java, Indonesia. International Journal of Conservation Science. 2020;11(1):87-96.
4. Goh CH. Green energy source going to waste. The Star. 2018 Sep 24.
5. Corradini E, Rosa MDF, de Macedo BP, Paladin PD, Mattoso LHC. Composição química, propriedades mecânicas e térmicas da fibra de cultivares de coco verde. Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura. 2009;31(3):837-846.
6. Kumar R, Singh L, Thomas P. Valorization of tender coconut mesocarp for the formulation of fiber-rich products. Journal of Biomass Valorization. 2023;8(4):234-242.
7. Satyanarayana KG, Wypych F. Characterization of natural fibers. In: Fakirov S, Bhattacharya D, editors. Engineering biopolymers: homopolymers, blends, and composites. Munich, Germany: Hanser; 2007. p. 3-48.
8. Selva Kumar C, Chinnarasu K, Kavi Nishanthini S, Kaviya Dharshini D, Kanimozhi B. Valorization of tender coconut waste into sustainable value-added products: challenges and opportunities. International Journal of Scientific Research and Technology. 2025;2(12):59-64.
9. Prabhu SR, Thomas GV. Biological conversion of coir pith into a value-added organic resource and its application in agri-horticulture: current status, prospects, and perspective. Journal of Plantation Crops. 2002;30(1):1-17.
10. Tran HT, Lin C, Bui XT, Ngo HH, Cheruiyot NK, Hoang HG, et al. Aerobic composting remediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated soil: current and future perspectives. Science of the Total Environment. 2021;753:142250.
11. Prakash V, Kavitha JR, Kamaleshwaran R, Prabharan P, Alagendran S. Effect of coir pith compost in agriculture. Journal of Medicinal Plants. 2021;9:106-110.
12. Srinivasan S, Mathana T, Angayarkanni A. Effect of coir pith compost, bone meal powder and panchagavya on yield attributes, yield and harvest index of barnyard millet cv. CO 2 in sandy loam soil. Plant Archives. 2021;21(1).
13. Hidayat B, Sebayang NUW, Akbar AM. Co-composting cow manure, rice straw with marine organic waste: characterization of compost quality. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2023;1182(1):012029.
14. Thomas GV, Palaniswami C, Prabhu SR, Gopal M, Gupta A. Co-composting of coconut coir pith with solid poultry manure. Current Science. 2012;102(9):1259-1263.
15. Reyes-Torres M, Oviedo-Ocaña ER, Dominguez I, Komilis D, Sánchez A. A systematic review on the composting of green waste: feedstock quality and optimization strategies. Waste Management. 2018;77:486-499.
16. Satheesh A, Raj S, Pillai PS, A KN. Co-composting: a comprehensive review of its potential in transforming coir pith waste into nutrient-rich manure. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change. 2024;14(11):208-218.
17. Suryadi H, Judono JJ, Putri MR, Eclessia AD, Ulhaq JM, Agustina DN, et al. Biodelignification of lignocellulose using ligninolytic enzymes from white-rot fungi. Heliyon. 2022;8:e08865.
18. Valadez-Carmona L, Cortez-García RM, Plazola-Jacinto CP, Necoechea-Mondragón H, Ortiz-Moreno A. Effect of microwave drying and oven drying on the water activity, color, phenolic compounds content and antioxidant activity of coconut husk (Cocos nucifera L.). Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2016;53(9):3495-3501.
19. Anand HS, Suseela Devi L, Kadalli GG, Tharamani GH. Lime pre-treatment for faster degradation and humification of coir pith. Journal of Tropical Agriculture. 1999;37:73-74.
20. Aparna B, Sudha B, Shalini Pillai P, Raj SK, Chithra N. Physical properties of tender coconut husk compost as influenced by different co-composting strategies. International Journal of Research in Agronomy. 2026;9(2):92-94.
21. Kannan K, Selvi V, Singh DV, Khola OPS, Mohanraj R, Murugesan A. Coir pith composting-an alternate source of organic manure for rainfed maize. Coir Pith Composting Brochure. 2013:1-2.
22. Senapathi BK. Functional role of earthworms in the decomposer sub-system. Tropical Ecology. 1994;25(2):5473.
23. Lung AJ, Lin CM, Kim JM, Marshall MR, Nordstedt R, Thompson NP, et al. Destruction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enteritidis in cow manure composting. Journal of Food Protection. 2001;64:13091314.
24. Motha K, Dorajerao AVD, Vishala S. Comparative performance of microbial culture and earthworm in composting of tender coconut waste into high quality organic manure. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2018;7(5):3076-3086.
25. Motha K, Dorajerao AVD, Padma E, Vishala S, Dilip Babu J. Standardisation of protocol for vermicomposting of tender coconut waste. International Journal of Tropical Agriculture. 2018;36(1):103-110.
26. Swarnam TP, Velmurugan A, Pandey SK, Roy SD. Enhancing nutrient recovery and compost maturity of coconut husk by vermicomposting technology. Bioresource Technology. 2016;207:76-84.
27. Jeyasubramanian K, Thangagiri B, Sakthivel A, Raja JD, Seenivasan S, Vallinayagam P, et al. A complete review on biochar: production, property, multifaceted applications, interaction mechanism and computational approach. Fuel. 2021;292:120243.
28. Gopal M, Gupta A, Shahul Hameed K, Sathyaseelan N, Khadeejath Rajeela TH, Thomas GV. Biochars produced from coconut palm biomass residues can aid regenerative agriculture by improving soil properties and plant yield in humid tropics. Biochar. 2020;2(2):211-226.
29. Atkinson CJ, Fitzgerald JD, Hipps NA. Potential mechanisms for achieving agricultural benefits from biochar application to temperate soils: a review. Plant and Soil. 2010;337:1-18.
30. Sainath N, Usha PB, Manorama KC, Joseph B. Tender coconut husk derived biochar influence on nutrient use efficiency, yield and economics of banana (Musa spp.). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2020;9(4):1457-1461.
31. International Biochar Initiative. Standardized product definition and product testing guidelines for biochar that is used in soil. International Biochar Initiative; 2015. IBISTD-2.0. p. 60.
32. Soinne H, Hovi J, Tammeorg P, Turtola E. Effect of biochar on phosphorous sorption and clay soil aggregate stability. Geoderma. 2014;219:162-167.
33. Dainy MMD, Usha PB. Efficacy of characterized tender coconut husk biochar amendment to improve biometric characters and yield of yard long bean. Journal of Krishi Vigyan. 2022;11(1):167-171.
34. Amaral HDDR, Situmeang YP, Suarta M. The effects of compost and biochar on the growth and yield of red chili plants. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2019;1402(3):1-6. ss
35. Jabin PP, Rani B. Effect of biochar produced from paddy husk and coconut frond on soil physical properties and productivity of ginger in a laterite soil. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change. 2023;13(9):20892098.
36. Vikram K, Jayapal A, Pillai PS, Isaac SR, Mini V. Tender coconut husk biochar augments the growth and yield of okra in Onattukara sandy plains. Journal of Krishi Vigyan. 2024;12(1):164-168.
37. Wahyudin W, Herwanto D, Nisah FA, Adikarana NA, Rifa'i MR, Saputra MAF. Utilization of coconut coir waste into flower pots at SDN Baturaden. Journal of Progressive Community Service. 2022;6(4):1802-1807.
38. Yangjiang X. Light-weight potting medium of fingered citron. China Patent CN106305202. 2017.
39. Masquelier S, Sozzi T, Bouvet JC, Bésiers J, Deogratias JM. Conception and development of recycled raw materials (coconut fiber and bagasse)-based substrates enriched with soil microorganisms (Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi, Trichoderma spp. and Pseudomonas spp.) for the soilless cultivation of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Agronomy. 2022;12(4):767.
40. Colla G, Rouphael Y, Possanzini G, Cardarelli M, Temperini O, Saccardo F, et al. Coconut coir as a potting media for organic lettuce transplant production. In: VIII International Symposium on Protected Cultivation in Mild Winter Climates: Advances in Soil and Soilless Cultivation under Protection. 2006;747:293-296.
41. Krucker ML. Root and shoot growth of chrysanthemum in various compost media utilizing overhead and sub-irrigation methods at two fertilizer rates [master's thesis]. Pullman (WA): Washington State University; 2003.
42. Sharif N, Ishfaq M, Memon N, Riaz S. Standardization of potting media for nursery raising seedlings of jujube (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Journal of Agricultural Technology. 2014;10(5):1231-1239.
43. Krishnapillai MV, Young-Uhk S, Friday JB, Haase DL. Locally produced cocopeat growing media for container plant production. Tree Planters' Notes. 2020;63(1):29-38.
44. George S, Jayachandran K. Production and characterization of rhamnolipid biosurfactant from waste frying coconut oil using a novel Pseudomonas aeruginosa D. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2013;114(2):373-383.
45. Verghese M, Kumar S, Pillai P. Organic mulches in spice crop production: A comprehensive review. Organic Agriculture. 2018;8(3):215-230.
46. Abraham M, Joseph S, Dainy M, Thomas D, Raj NG, B TK. Drip irrigation and coconut husk mulching: Effects on nutmeg productivity and water use efficiency. Journal of Tropical Agriculture. 2026;64(1):89-96.
47. Asha'ari MA, Rahman EKA, Ratnayake U, Tan SJ, Shams S. Field evaluation of using coconut husk and fibre to control slope erosion. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2021;646(1):012044.
48. Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM). Documentation and analysis of farmers' practices in water management of plantation crops in Kerala. New Delhi: Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India; 2011.
49. Mangalassery S, Nayak MG, Preethi P, Mualidhara BM. Soil and water conservation, and irrigation management in cashew. Technical Bulletin No. 31. Puttur (Karnataka): ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research; 2020. p. 34.
50. Gupta H, Kumar H, Gehlaut AK, Singh SK, Gaur A, Sachan S, et al. Preparation and characterization of biocomposite films obtained from coconut coir and groundnut shell for food packaging. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management. 2022;24(2):569-581.