Nutritional potential of natural and cultivated fodders in Uttarakhand: A comprehensive review paper

Introduction

Uttarakhand, a northern Indian state nestled in the Himalayas, boasts a diverse landscape and rich biodiversity, stretching from the snow-capped peaks of the higher Himalayas to the fertile Tarai plains. Livestock plays a crucial role in the socio-economic fabric of Uttarakhand, providing a significant source of income, ensuring food security, offering employment, and diversifying farm activities for rural communities. The state supports a substantial livestock population, including approximately 0.4 million non-descript cattle, 0.5 million buffaloes in milk (collectively contributing 1.2 million tons of milk annually, with buffaloes providing the larger share), and 1.2 million goats (Department of Animal Husbandry, Uttarakhand, 2023) [3] . This deep integration of livestock into the rural economy, coupled with the small-scale nature of farming, underscores how fodder availability and quality directly influence not just animal productivity but also the socio-economic stability and food security of a large segment of Uttarakhand's rural population. Approximately 70% of Uttarakhand's population relies on agriculture and livestock production for their livelihood, with a significant portion engaged in mixed crop-livestock farming, particularly in the hilly regions. While about 47.4% of the state's working population is primarily engaged in agriculture, forestry, and fishing (NITI Aayog, 2023) [22] , feed shortages remain a chronic issue. The state's annual livestock fodder deficit is approximately 109 million tonnes; only 143 MT are produced against an estimated demand of 252 MT, resulting in a substantial 43% gap (Livestock Census, 2019). Regions across the state, especially the Garhwal and Kumaun divisions (including districts like Tehri Garhwal, Chamoli, Nainital, Bageshwar, Pithoragarh, Almora, Dehradun, and Pauri Garhwal), are involved in fodder production, utilizing common lands, private plots, and natural grasslands, encompassing subtropical, intermediate, and temperate ranges (Himmotthan, n.d.; Singh & Singh, 2017) [10,31] .

Types of Fodder Available in Uttarakhand (A) General Fodder Types across the State Forest-Based Fodder Forests in Uttarakhand are not just ecological treasures but also a vital source of fodder for livestock, especially in hilly and remote areas where cultivated land is scarce. This "forest-based fodder" provides essential nutrition, particularly during lean seasons when conventional feed sources are limited. The diversity of forest types in Uttarakhand, ranging from tropical moist deciduous to subalpine and alpine forests, contributes to a wide array of fodder species.

1. Tree Leaves (Tree Fodder/Lopping): Tree leaves form a significant part of the diet for various livestock, particularly goats, sheep, and even cattle, due to their yearround availability and generally good nutritional profile.  Quercus leucotrichophora (Banj Oak): One of the most widespread oak species in the Himalayan region and a very common fodder source. While traditionally used, research indicates that banj oak leaves have a relatively low protein content (9-13% DM) and a very high fiber content (NDF 60-70% DM, ADF 38-60% DM). A significant concern with banj oak is its high tannin content (3-4% or more), particularly condensed tannins, which can bind to proteins and reduce their digestibility and overall palatability for ruminants. Despite its limitations, it is widely utilized, especially when other fodder is scarce, and can serve as a protein supplement in low-quality diets (Joshi et al., 2016; Feedipedia, 2011) [12,6] .  Grewia optiva (Bhimal): Bhimal is a highly valued fodder tree, especially during the lean winter months when green fodder is scarce. Its leaves are known for their good palatability and nutritional quality. Studies indicate satisfactory digestibility coefficients for crude protein and nitrogen-free extract. It provides digestible crude protein and total digestible nutrients, making it a crucial supplement for livestock diets in the region (Deshmukh et al., 1990; Joshi et al., 2023) [4,14] .  Celtis australis (Khirak/Kharik): This agroforestry tree is another important fodder source in the Himalayas. Its foliage is known to contain crude proteins, phosphorus, and crude fiber. The nutritional content can vary seasonally and with altitude, with higher altitudes often yielding more nutrient-rich foliage. Chemical analysis reveals typical values of ~15% crude protein, ~17% crude fiber, and substantial amounts of ash and minerals (Mahajan et al., 2023) [19] . [9,20] . [2] .  Berberis aristata (Kingora/Indian Barberry): This shrub is also commonly browsed. Its leaves and particularly its berries are known for their medicinal properties due to the presence of alkaloids like berberine. While the primary use is medicinal, its leaves are part of the browse diet. The berries are a source of minerals, total phenols, and total flavonoids. The leaves would contribute fiber and some micronutrients, and the tannins present might assist in parasite management, as mentioned by Rawat and Singh (2017) [26] .  Indigofera pulchella (Wild Indigo): Various Indigofera species are recognized for their high-quality nutrients and are utilized as pasture legumes. They are known for their high crude protein content (around 20-27%) and total digestible nutrients. Some species of Indigofera also contain condensed tannins, saponins, and flavonoids, which can have beneficial effects on animal health, including parasite control and improved nutrient utilization, especially for ruminants (Rawat & Singh, 2017; Evitayani et al., 2021) [26,5] . The most critical leguminous fodder, highly valued for its high protein content and multiple cuttings.  Varieties  Mescavi: A classic multi-cut variety known for its rapid growth and high yields.  Pusa Giant: A well-established variety with good performance.  Wardan: Another popular multi-cut variety, widely adopted for its productivity.  JHB-146: A promising variety for higher fodder yield.

Shrubs

Feeding Period: Predominantly fed from December to April, providing fresh green fodder during a critical period.  Oats (Avena sativa): A prominent non-leguminous cereal fodder for its high yield and palatability.  Varieties  Kent: A widely grown, high-yielding variety.  JHO-822: Known for good green fodder yield.  Pusa Oat-5: A recommended variety for fodder purposes.  OL-1258: High-yielding and resistant to rust.

Feeding Period: Typically fed from January to April.  Barley (Hordeum vulgare): While primarily a grain crop, certain varieties are suitable for green fodder.  Varieties  RD-2035 (Rajkiran): A dual-purpose barley suitable for green fodder at early stages.

Feeding Period: Can be fed in December-January as green fodder.

Zaid (Summer) Fodder Crops (April-June)

The hot and dry summer months demand quick-growing and relatively drought-tolerant options to bridge the gap between Rabi and Kharif crops.  Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata): A versatile leguminous crop that excels in both Kharif and Zaid seasons.  Recommended Varieties: Same as Kharif season: EC-4216, UPC-5286, Bundel Lobia-1 (BL-1), Bundel Lobia-2 (BL-2).  Feeding Period: Typically fed from April to July.

Perennial Fodder Crops: Long-Term Solutions

Perennial fodders offer sustained production over several years from a single planting, optimizing resource use and labor.  Hybrid Napier (Pennisetum purpureum x Pennisetum glaucum): A cornerstone for continuous green fodder supply.  Varieties  Pusa Napier-1: High-yielding and widely adopted.  NB-21: Another very popular hybrid, known for its rapid growth and multiple cuttings.  CO-3, CO-4, and CO-5: Highly productive varieties developed in India, known for their superior yield and quality. CO-5 is particularly noted for its high biomass and digestibility.

Feeding Period: Provides continuous green fodder from April/May to November, making it crucial for year-round availability in the Tarai plains.

 Lucerne (Medicago sativa, Alfalfa): The "Queen of Fodders," a highly nutritious, protein-rich legume.  Varieties  Anand-2 (LL-Composite-3): A popular variety for general cultivation.  SS-627: Known for good performance in various conditions.  Cheftal: Often used for its perennial nature and multiple cuts.

Feeding Period: Offers multiple cuts throughout the year in irrigated conditions, particularly productive from November to June.

Crop Residues and Other Supplementary Sources

These form the bulk of dry fodder and roughage, especially when green fodder is scarce.  Wheat Straw: Abundant after Rabi wheat harvest (April/May). Low in protein and digestibility.  Paddy Straw: Plentiful after the Kharif rice harvest (October/November). Also low in nutritional value.  Millet Residues: From hill-grown millets like Finger Millet (Ragi/Mandua), Barnyard Millet (Jhangora/Sawa), Proso Millet (Cheena), and Foxtail Millet (Kangni/Kauni). Generally available after their respective harvests (September-November for Kharif millets).

General Feeding Practices in Uttarakhand

 Summer (June): Livestock would be transitioning from the last of the Zaid (Summer) fodders like Cowpea. The early plantings of Kharif fodder crops like Maize and Bajra would be in their initial growth stages. Perennial Hybrid Napier would be growing rapidly, providing substantial green fodder. Dry roughage (Wheat Straw, some remaining Paddy Straw from last year) would still be a significant part of the diet, often mixed with available green fodder.  Monsoon (July-October): This period will bring an abundance of Maize, Sorghum, Bajra, and Cowpea. Hybrid Napier will be at its peak production, providing multiple cuts. Natural pastures and forest grasslands will also be lush in the hills, offering excellent grazing opportunities. Paddy straw will become available from October onwards.  Winter (December-March): This period is highly reliant on Berseem and Oats from cultivated fields, providing high-quality green fodder. Stored wheat and paddy straw will form the primary dry roughage component. In the hills, lopped tree fodder (Banj oak, Bhimal, Khirak) becomes absolutely vital as green grasses become scarce.  Spring/Early Summer (April-June): As Rabi fodder finishes, attention shifts to early Hybrid Napier cuts and Zaid season Cowpea. Leftover wheat straw from the recent harvest is a key dry fodder. This is often a lean period requiring careful management of available resources.

By integrating specific, well-adapted varieties into the cropping system, farmers in Uttarakhand can significantly enhance the quantity and quality of fodder, supporting healthier and more productive livestock throughout the year.

(B) Physiographic Regions and Fodder Availability in Uttarakhand

Uttarakhand comprises five main physiographic regions: Tarai, Foothills, and Hills, each contributing distinctively to fodder availability.

Tarai Region

The Tarai is a low-lying region situated immediately south of the Sivalik Hills and extending north of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. In Uttarakhand, a significant portion of this belt covers the lower areas of the Nainital district, Udham Singh Nagar, and parts of Haridwar. The region's soil is predominantly alluvial, exhibiting a fine to medium texture derived from both older and more recent alluvial deposits (Kumar & Sharma, 2020) [17] . This landscape is naturally characterized by tall grasslands, scrub savannah, sal forests, and clay-rich swamps, often featuring marshy plains formed by re-emerging subsurface streams. For fodder, key cultivated crops include Avena sativa (oats), a versatile cereal widely used for feed and fodder. Other significant cultivated fodder crops are Trifolium alexandrinum (berseem), Zea mays (maize), Pennisetum purpureum (Napier grass), sorghum, and Vigna unguiculata (cowpea).

Research has highlighted the effectiveness of specific cropping sequences, such as "Hybrid Napier + Berseem," which have demonstrated superior yields in both green and dry fodder, higher crude protein content, and enhanced economic efficiency (Verma et al., 2022) [33] . The natural forage in this region primarily consists of the characteristic tall grasslands, scrub savannah, and sal forests. The seasonal availability of fodder crops is welldefined: during the Kharif season (June to September), crops such as cowpea, cluster bean, field bean, bajra, sorghum, and maize are cultivated. The Rabi season (October to January) sees the growth of berseem, lucerne, and barley. In the summer months (April to June), oats and cowpeas become available. The "Hybrid Napier + Berseem" cropping sequence has shown remarkable productivity, yielding 185.8% higher green fodder and 306.7% higher dry fodder compared to conventional cropping sequences (Verma et al., 2022) [33] . This underscores the substantial potential for intensive fodder production in this region.

Foothills (Sivalik Range)

The Sivalik Range comprises the outer foothills of the Himalayas, situated south of the Lesser Himalayas and gradually transitioning into the Indo-Gangetic Plain. While not defined by a single, narrow altitude, it covers Dehradun, parts of the Nainital district, and Champawat of Uttarakhand. The foothills are characterized by mixed vegetation, with a mix of cultivated land and forest cover, including species such as Shorea robusta (sal), Dalbergia sissoo (shisham), Acacia catechu (khair), Bambusa spp.

(bamboo), Mangifera indica (mango), and Syzygium cumini (jamun) trees. The natural forage in the Sivalik hills includes grasses found below the snow line, as well as evergreen and deciduous dense forests. Major grasses include Cynodon dactylon, Setaria spp., and leaves of Grewia optiva, Ficus spp., and Morus alba. While specific cultivated fodder crops for the Sivalik range are not extensively detailed, the broader "Northern Zone" (which includes Uttarakhand) cultivates major crops like maize + cowpea, sorghum + cowpea, berseem + mustard, and Sudan grass + cowpea.

Lower Hills

The lower hills represent a transitional zone with altitudes generally ranging from approximately 365 to 914 meters above mean sea level based on similar agro-climatic categorizations in the broader Himalayan region (FSI 2019) [8] . Specific forest types found here include tropical dry deciduous forests characterized by species such as Kuri, Kemela, Jhingan, and Mandar, and sal forests, which thrive up to an altitude of 1066 meters (Champion & Seth 1968; Negi et al. 2018) [1,21] . In the lower Himalayan region, agricultural practices are often constrained by small farm holdings and limited irrigation, leading farmers to rely heavily on nearby forests for fuel and fodder (Pandey 2010) [23] . The contribution of leaves from forest trees, bushes, and herbaceous plants is significant. Common non-cultivated fodder plants include species from the Poaceae, Moraceae, and Caesalpiniaceae families (Joshi et al. 2016) [12,13] . Fodder trees and shrubs are particularly important, providing essential nutrients that grasses may lack during dry seasons (Rawat & Singh 2017) [26] . Cultivated fodder in subtropical areas (600-1200 m) includes frost-tolerant winter grasses like Napier (Pennisetum purpureum) and broom grass (Thysanolaena maxima) (Kumar et al. 2021) [18] . Traditional mixed cropping systems such as Barahnaja, which integrate cereals, pulses, oilseeds, and vegetables, also contribute to fodder availability through nutrient-rich crop residues (Negi et al. 2018) [21] . These systems support both nutritional security and palatable dry-season fodder for livestock. The availability of green fodder is not uniform throughout the year, with significant reliance on forests and pasture grasslands during fodder-scarce months (FSI 2019) [8] . During the rainy season (June-September), stall-fed crossbred cattle primarily consume green grasses supplemented with concentrates. However, during the lean period (October-March), cereal straw and dry grasses are supplemented with nutrient-rich leaves from fodder trees (Pandey 2010) [23] . The increasing pressure on forests due to rising human and cattle populations has led to reduced fodder availability and growing concerns about the sustainability of forest ecosystems (Sati & Bandooni 2019) [28, 29] .

Mid Hills

The mid-hill regions of Uttarakhand, encompassing areas like Nainital, Almora, and Ranikhet, experience a temperate climate. The average elevation in this region ranges between 915 and 1523 meters, though Western Himalayan broadleaf forests typically occur between 1500 and 2600 meters (Champion & Seth, 1968; FSI, 2019) [1,8] . Rainfall is received from both the southwest monsoon (June-September) and western disturbances (December-March), contributing to lush vegetation and fertile soils (Sati & Bandooni, 2019) [28,29] . The forests and uncultivated lands in this zone play a crucial role in fodder availability, particularly during the dry season when grasses are dormant and nutritionally poor. In such periods, fodder trees and shrubs provide essential nutrients to ruminant diets. Commonly used species include oak, fig, poplar, holly, and rhododendron, whose leaves have been shown to contain 10% to over 25% crude protein on a dry matter basis (Joshi et al., 2016; Rawat & Singh, 2017) [12,13,26] . Cultivated fodder in temperate and intermediate elevations (1200-1800 m) includes improved grasses such as cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), and brome (Bromus inermis), which perform well under cool conditions (Kumar et al., 2021) [18] . In addition, traditional mixed cropping systems like Barahnaja, practiced across the central Himalayas, integrate millets (e.g., finger millet), amaranth (ramdana), buckwheat, maize, sorghum, and various pulses and oilseeds on terraced fields (Negi et al., 2018) [21] . These systems are agroecologically sustainable and contribute to fodder supply through nutritious crop residues. Similar to other zones, green fodder availability is seasonal. During the monsoon (June-September), green grasses are abundant and used for stall-fed cattle, along with concentrate supplements. However, during the lean winter months (October-March), cereal straw and dry grasses are complemented with nutrient-rich leaves from fodder trees (Pandey, 2010; FSI, 2019) [23,8] .

Higher Hills

The higher hills of Uttarakhand are situated at greater altitudes, typically ranging from approximately 1524 to 2742 meters, and include zones such as the Himalayan Moist Temperate Forest (2000-3000 m) and Western Himalayan Subalpine Conifer Forests (2600-3000 m) (Champion & Seth, 1968; FSI, 2019) [1,8] . Forests at these altitudes are dominated by species such as Himalayan cypress, deodar, blue pine, fir, and longleaf pine (Rawat, 2005) [24,25] . Natural grasslands and pastures in this region are vital ecological resources that directly support a large livestock population, especially transhumant systems. Fodder trees and shrubs gain critical importance during lean periods, providing nutrient-rich green biomass when herbaceous resources are depleted (Negi et al., 2018) [21] . Common trees used for fodder include wild cherry, wild apple, spindle wood, oak, fig, poplar, holly, rhododendron, and various fruit trees. In oak-dominated zones of the Garhwal Himalaya, the main fodder species include Quercus floribunda (Moru), Q. semecarpifolia (Kharsu), and Q. leucotrichophora (Banj), along with domesticated multipurpose trees like Grewia oppositifolia (Bhimal) and Ficus spp. In pine-dominated areas, Bhimal and Ficus are also widely used due to their adaptability and regrowth potential (Joshi et al., 2016; Pandey, 2010) [12,13,23] . Grasses like Themeda arundinacea (Ula) and Brachiaria villosa (Malchu) are highly valued in both oak and pine belts due to their nutrient density and ability to enhance milk production (Kumar et al., 2021) [18] . However, fodder scarcity during the winter and dry periods remains a major challenge in the Himalayan region, often leading to economic losses among smallholder farmers (FSI, 2019) [8] . Fodder trees play a key role in bridging this deficit due to their deep roots, which allow them to access water and nutrients in dry conditions and remain green longer. Their leaves are rich in proteins (10-30% of dry matter) and can serve as an effective substitute for commercial concentrates (Joshi et al., 2016) [12,13] . Additionally, the nutrient content of such fodder, especially calcium and phosphorus, is often elevated due to the mineral-rich rocky mountain soils (Rawat, 2005) [24,25] . However, the productivity of natural forage remains highly variable, depending on ecological and seasonal factors (Pandey, 2010) [23] .

Alpine Region

The Alpine region of Uttarakhand represents the highest altitudinal zone, typically lying between the tree line and the permanent snowline, at elevations ranging from approximately 3,000 to 5,000 meters above mean sea level (Champion & Seth, 1968; Rawat, 2005) [1,24,25] . At altitudes exceeding 4,880 meters, the climate is bitterly cold, with temperatures consistently below freezing, and the area remains perennially snowbound (FSI, 2019) [8] . This ecozone is characterized by a cold alpine climate with short, cool summers and long, harsh winters. Alpine zones are snow-free only from May to October, with vegetation emerging for a brief window of 1-2 months, especially near the snowline (Rawat, 2005) [24,25] . The alpine pastures, locally known as "Bugyals," "Kanda," or "Marg," are treeless high-altitude meadows dominated by alpine grasses, sedges, shrubs, and forbs. The vegetation is typically composed of leaf rosettes, grass tussocks, dense cushions, and succulent alpine forms (Samant et al., 2007) [27] . Lower alpine elevations are dominated by shrubby rhododendrons and birch (Betula utilis), while willows (Salix spp.) are common along shallow streams and wet patches. Higher up, the vegetation transitions into rich alpine meadows, interspersed with junipers, mosses, and lichens (Kala, 2005) [15,16] . Many of these species are endemic, and some are classified as endangered due to overexploitation (Rawat, 2005; Samant et al., 2007) [24,25,27] . Due to extreme climatic constraints, cultivated fodder is generally not feasible, and livestock rely almost entirely on natural alpine pastures during the brief snow-free period (Kala, 2005) [15,16] . The growing season is limited from May to October, and summer grazing is a common practice. However, these pastures are often overgrazed due to increasing livestock pressure and declining forage resources at lower elevations (Rawat, 2005) [24,25] . These natural grasslands and meadows are vital not only for fodder supply but also for maintaining a diverse assemblage of grasses, legumes, shrubs, and medicinal plants. Despite their ecological and economic value, many alpine species face serious threats from overharvesting and grazing pressure, leading to concerns about their long-term conservation (Samant et al., 2007; Kala, 2005) [27,15,16] .

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