Sustainable and low-emission climate-smart rice: A review

Introduction

Rice is one of the world's most important staple food crops, providing food and nutritional security for more than half of the global population. In India, rice is the principal food grain, occupying about 40-43 per cent of the total food grain area, with nearly 52 per cent of the cultivated area being rainfed (Bhambure and Kerkar, 2016) [2] . India is the second-largest rice producer in the world, contributing nearly one-fifth of global rice production (Pavithra et al., 2018) [36] . However, rice cultivation, particularly under rainfed conditions, is highly vulnerable to abiotic stresses such as drought and flooding, as well as biotic stresses including pests and diseases. Climate change has further intensified these challenges, threatening the sustainability and productivity of rice-based farming systems (NRRI, 2018). Rice cultivation is also a significant source of agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly methane, contributing substantially to global warming (Adhya et al., 2014; WWF, 2022) [1] . Therefore, there is an urgent need for production systems that can sustain productivity while minimizing environmental impacts. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has emerged as a sustainable approach to address these challenges by achieving three major objectives: enhancing agricultural productivity, strengthening resilience and adaptation to climate change, and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2010; Jena et al., 2023) [17] . In rice production, climate-smart practices such as improved water and nutrient management, stress-tolerant varieties, conservation agriculture, precision farming, integrated pest management, and crop diversification have shown considerable potential to improve resource-use efficiency, enhance profitability, and reduce the environmental footprint of cultivation (Kakraliya et al., 2021) [19] . Considering the increasing demand for rice and the growing impacts of climate change, the adoption of climate-smart strategies has become essential for sustainable rice production. This review highlights the different strategies of climate-smart rice cultivation and their role in enhancing productivity, resilience, and environmental sustainability.

Concept of climate-smart rice

Climate-smart rice (CSR) refers to the development of climateresilient rice varieties and the adoption of sustainable management practices aimed at enhancing productivity while reducing the environmental footprint of rice cultivation. It is also referred to as "green rice" because of its potential to reduce carbon emissions, improve water-use efficiency, and enhance resilience to climate-related stresses. Climate-smart rice integrates breeding and production strategies that emphasize low external inputs, efficient resource utilization, and tolerance to multiple biotic and abiotic stresses. climate-smart rice production encompasses several interconnected dimensions, including water-smart practices such as alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and weather-based irrigation scheduling; nutrient-smart approaches based on the 4R nutrient stewardship concept, slow-release fertilizers, subsurface nitrogen application, and site-specific nutrient management; carbon-smart practices such as residue management, biochar application, and conservation tillage; energy-smart technologies including direct-seeded rice and laser land levelling; weather-smart interventions involving climate-resilient varieties and agro-advisory services; and knowledge-smart approaches such as precision farming and crop insurance (Das et al., 2024) [6] . The integration of these components contributes to improved productivity, climate resilience, resource-use efficiency, and reduced greenhouse gas emissions, thereby supporting sustainable rice production.'

Strategies for climate smart rice production Climate resilient varieties

Climate-resilient rice varieties are cultivars developed to withstand one or more climate-related stresses, including drought, submergence, salinity, heat, and pests and diseases, thereby ensuring stable productivity under changing climatic conditions. The development and adoption of such varieties are essential for sustaining rice production and enhancing the resilience of farming systems to climate change. The stresstolerant versions of popular rice cultivars can help farming communities mitigate the impacts of recurrent flooding and drought (Nayak et al., 2022) [31] Similarly, Suresh et al. (2024) [45] emphasized the importance of breeding climate-resilient rice varieties to meet future food demands under changing climatic conditions. A study conducted at the National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, demonstrated that climate-resilient varieties exhibited significant yield advantages over local cultivars under various stress conditions (Chattopadhyay et al., 2016) [3] . The adoption of climate-resilient rice varieties is therefore a key climate-smart strategy for improving productivity, enhancing adaptation to climate variability, and ensuring long-term food security. [3] Low-emission rice varieties Low-emission rice varieties are an emerging climate-smart strategy for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from paddy fields while maintaining productivity. Methane (CH₄) emissions from rice cultivation are primarily produced by methanogenic archaea under the anaerobic conditions of flooded soils. These microorganisms utilize carbon compounds derived mainly from rice root exudates, which are estimated to contribute nearly 70 per cent of the methane emitted from paddy fields (Watanabe et al., 1999; Khosa et al., 2010) [21,48] . Variations in root characteristics and exudation patterns among rice cultivars result in considerable differences in methane emission potential (King and Reeburgh, 2002 [23] ; Lu and Conrad, 2005; Chen et al., 2021) [4,28] . The high-yielding, low-methane-emitting rice varieties could be considered a clean development technology with potential for carbon credit schemes (Soremi et al., 2023) [43] . They observed that rice varieties with shorter roots and lower root volume produced lower methane emissions. Similarly, low-methane rice varieties could reduce CH₄ emissions by up to 70 per cent through reduced root exudation and enhanced sugar transport to aerial plant parts without compromising yield potential (Hu et al., 2024) [12] . They identified Heijing 5 as a promising genotype for future lowemission rice breeding programmes. Therefore, the development and adoption of low-emission rice varieties can contribute significantly to sustainable and climate-smart rice production. [12] Scientific management of organic matter Organic matter management is a key component of climatesmart rice cultivation, as it improves soil fertility and productivity, enhances resilience to climatic stresses, and mitigates greenhouse gas emissions. Appropriate management of crop residues and organic amendments can improve soil physical, chemical, and biological properties while reducing the environmental footprint of rice production. However, the continuous incorporation of rice straw into flooded paddy soils provides abundant substrates for methanogenic microorganisms and stimulates the decomposition of soil organic matter, thereby increasing CH₄ emissions under anaerobic conditions (Huang et al., 2024) [13] . In contrast, anaerobic digestion of rice straw has emerged as a promising alternative for residue management. The anaerobic digestion not only reduces methane emissions from paddy fields but also generates renewable energy and highquality organic fertilizers (Ni et al., 2025) [32] Thus, sustainable organic matter management can improve soil health while reducing greenhouse gas emissions, making it an important climate-smart strategy for rice cultivation.

Application of biochar

Biochar is a carbon-rich material produced through the pyrolysis of biomass under limited oxygen conditions (Verheijen et al., 2010) [47] . Its application in rice cultivation has gained attention as an effective climate-smart practice for improving soil quality and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Biochar application reduced CH₄ emissions by increasing the abundance of methanotrophic bacteria while decreasing the ratio of methanogens to methanotrophs (Feng et al, 2012) [10] . Several studies have demonstrated that biochar amendments can reduce methane emissions by 34-91 per cent (Liu et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2017) [22,27] . The different biochar particle sizes and observed that both sizes effectively reduced methane production and emission from anaerobic rice soils (Sriphitom et al., 2020) [44] . The reduction was attributed to improved soil aeration, increased soil redox potential, suppression of methanogenic microorganisms, and stimulation of methanotrophic bacteria. In addition to mitigating methane emissions, biochar enhances soil fertility and carbon sequestration, making it a valuable component of climate-smart rice production systems.

Nutrient management: Judicious nutrient management is an essential component of climate-smart rice cultivation, aiming to enhance crop productivity while minimizing greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane and nitrous oxide. Efficient nutrient management improves nutrient-use efficiency, reduces fertilizer losses, and lowers the environmental impact of rice production. The global fertilizer industry contributes approximately 2.5 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions, with nearly 1.5 per cent resulting from fertilizer application practices (IFA, 2016). The adoption of soil-and crop-specific nutrient management practices can substantially reduce these emissions while maintaining or improving rice productivity. Climate-smart nutrient management strategies include integrated nutrient management, site-specific nutrient management, slowrelease fertilizers, and improved nitrogen application techniques, which collectively contribute to sustainable and low-emission rice production.

Rational use of chemical fertilizers along with natural nutrient resources:

Integrated nutrient management, which combines organic and inorganic nutrient sources, is an effective climate-smart strategy for improving nutrient-use efficiency and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Kumar et al. (2022) [24] demonstrated that the combined application of 50 per cent chemical fertilizer and 50 per cent vermicompost (CF50 + VC50) significantly reduced greenhouse gas emissions and global warming potential while maintaining grain yields comparable to those obtained with sole chemical fertilization. Sole vermicompost application achieved the greatest reduction in global warming potential, with up to a 70 per cent decrease compared to conventional fertilizer management. These findings highlight the potential of integrating organic and inorganic nutrient sources to enhance soil health, sustain productivity, and promote environmentally sustainable rice cultivation.

Subsurface application of nitrogen fertilizers

Subsurface nitrogen fertilization is an effective climate-smart strategy for enhancing nutrient-use efficiency, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and improving the resilience of rice production systems. This practice minimizes nitrogen losses while ensuring a sustained nutrient supply to the crop, making it particularly suitable for low-emission and resource-efficient rice cultivation. Urea deep placement (UDP) has been reported to increase rice yields by 28 per cent and nitrogen recovery efficiency by 167 per cent compared with conventional broadcast urea application. Furthermore, the combination of UDP with alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation improved grain yield and nitrogen-use efficiency without increasing N₂O and NO emissions (Islam et al., 2018) [15] . UDP reduced cumulative CH₄ emissions by 17-31 per cent (Islam et al., 2024) [16] . This reduction was attributed to the prolonged retention of NH₄⁺-N in the subsurface soil, which promoted methane oxidation by soil methanotrophs. In addition, nitrogen placement at a depth of 8-10 cm enhanced root growth and oxygen availability in the rhizosphere, thereby increasing methane oxidation and reducing CH₄ emissions. Thus, subsurface nitrogen application contributes to enhanced productivity while mitigating greenhouse gas emissions in climate-smart rice systems.

Biofertilizers for low-emission rice production

Biofertilizers have shown considerable potential in reducing methane emissions while improving soil fertility and crop productivity. Microbial inoculants such as cyanobacteria, mycorrhizae, Azolla, and diazotrophs enhance nutrient cycling, improve soil properties, and contribute to sustainable rice production (Prasanna et [20,30,37,42] . Senthilraja et al. (2023) [40] evaluated the effects of various organic amendments on CH₄ emissions, soil redox potential, dissolved oxygen, and paddy yield. Their findings indicated that the combined application of organic amendments with blue-green algae produced higher grain yields while generating lower methane emissions than organic amendments alone. Compared with the conventional farmer practice of farmyard manure incorporation, the combined application of Azolla and bluegreen algae effectively maintained lower CH₄ emissions. These findings highlight the potential of biofertilizers as an ecofriendly and climate-smart approach for sustainable rice cultivation.

Smart water management practices

Efficient water management is a fundamental component of climate-smart rice cultivation, aiming to reduce water consumption and greenhouse gas emissions while sustaining crop productivity. Water-saving practices such as alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and mid-season drainage create alternating aerobic and anaerobic soil conditions that suppress methane production without adversely affecting grain yield. These practices improve water-use efficiency and reduce the environmental footprint of rice cultivation.

Alternate wetting and drying

Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is a water-saving irrigation technique that involves periodic drying and re-flooding of paddy fields instead of maintaining continuous flooding. AWD reduces irrigation water requirements and suppresses soil methanogenesis, thereby lowering methane emissions from rice fields (Dahlgreen and Parr,2024) [5] . Echegaray-Cabrera et al. (2024) [8] evaluated several AWD irrigation regimes and compared them with continuous flooding. Their results demonstrated that AWD effectively reduced greenhouse gas emissions while conserving irrigation water. These findings emphasize that AWD is an important climate-smart practice capable of improving water-use efficiency and reducing the environmental impact of rice cultivation.

Aerobic rice cultivation practices

Aerobic rice is a production system in which rice is cultivated under well-drained, non-puddled, and non-flooded soil conditions, similar to upland crops. This system is designed to reduce irrigation water requirements and lower greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane. Methane emissions from flooded rice paddies are a major source of atmospheric CH4 and represent a significant green house gas with high climate-forcing potential due to anthropogenic activities globally (Lee et al., 2024) [26] . Aerobic rice cultivation can reduce irrigation water use by approximately 50 per cent compared with conventional lowland rice systems. Aerobic rice offers a promising solution to increasing water scarcity in both present and future production scenarios (Dey et al., 2018) [7] . The superiority of aerobic rice in mitigating GHG emission from rice fields was revealed from the significantly lower efflux of CH4 under aerobic (3.03 mg m -2 h -1 ) compared to flooded rice (6.16 mg m -2 h -1 ) (Jinsy V.S, 2014) [18] . In addition, aerobic rice minimizes water losses through evaporation, seepage, and deep percolation, thereby improving overall water productivity (Silwal et al., 2020) [41] . Consequently, aerobic rice cultivation represents an important climate-smart strategy for sustainable rice production in waterlimited environments.

Climate-smart precision irrigation

Precision irrigation involves the use of advanced technologies to apply water and nutrients according to crop requirements, thereby maximizing resource-use efficiency and minimizing wastage. This approach is increasingly important for sustainable rice production under changing climatic conditions and increasing water scarcity.

Drip irrigation in rice

Drip irrigation is an innovative water-saving technology that has shown considerable potential in direct-seeded and aerobic rice cultivation. Studies have demonstrated that water productivity under drip irrigation is significantly greater than under conventional flooded rice systems because of reduced evaporation, seepage, runoff, and deep percolation losses. Precise water application through drip irrigation improves root activity, canopy photosynthesis, and dry matter partitioning, resulting in nearly a two-fold increase in water productivity in aerobic rice systems (Parthasarathi et al., 2018) [34] . Drip irrigation reduced methane emissions while improving rice growth and grain yield compared with conventional aerobic cultivation practices (Parthasarathi et al., (2019) [35] . Therefore, drip irrigation is a promising climate-smart technology for improving water productivity and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Smart irrigation

Smart irrigation integrates advanced technologies such as soil moisture sensors, the Internet of Things (IoT), wireless communication networks, weather stations, remote sensing, satellite imaging, and cloud computing to optimize irrigation scheduling. These technologies provide real-time information on crop water requirements and enable precise water management. Morchid et al. (2024) [29] highlighted the contribution of smart irrigation systems to water and food security through advanced agricultural technologies. Automated irrigation systems improve water-use efficiency by supplying water according to crop requirements (Tiwari et al., 2019) [46] . Kumar et al. (2024) [25] developed a sensor-based automated irrigation system for rice cultivated under the AWD technique that effectively regulates water levels and minimizes water wastage. The integration of digital technologies with irrigation management has significant potential to enhance resource-use efficiency and promote sustainable climate-smart rice production. [8] Aerobic rice Very low Moderate Low Large water savings and reduced methane production Selvaraj and Ramesh (2020) [39] Drip [50] Challenges in climate-smart rice cultivation Climate-smart rice cultivation offers significant benefits but faces several challenges that limit its adoption.

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