Nutrient dynamics and fertility constraints in entisols: A critical review

Introduction

Entisols are among the youngest and least developed soil orders in the USDA Soil Taxonomy system and are characterized by minimal profile development and weak horizon differentiation (Soil Survey Staff, 2014; Buol et al., 2011) [10] . These soils are formed under conservation. However, entisols generally contain low soil organic carbon because of rapid organic matter decomposition, poor vegetation cover, limited biomass incorporation, and unstable environmental conditions (Lal, 2015; Kumar et al., 2022c) [31,32,34,35,39,40] . Low organic carbon adversely affects microbial biomass, enzymatic activity, aggregate stability, nutrient retention, and nutrientuse efficiency. Declining soil organic matter further weakens resilience against climatic stresses such as drought and temperature fluctuations. Climate change has emerged as an additional threat to the sustainability of entisol ecosystems. Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and extreme weather events significantly alter nutrient transformation processes and accelerate nutrient losses (Kumar et al., 2022d) [31,32,34,35] . High-intensity rainfall events enhance nutrient leaching, runoff, and soil erosion, whereas drought stress suppresses microbial activity, nutrient mineralization, and plant nutrient uptake (Lal, 2020; Mandwa et al., 2024) [40,43] . Water and wind erosion remove nutrient-rich topsoil and contribute to desertification, frtility decline, and land degradation, particularly in arid and semi-arid ecosystems (Morgan, 2005; Kumar et al., 2023) [33] . Salinity and sodicity problems are also intensifying in irrigated and coastal entisols due to rising temperatures, evaporation, and poorquality irrigation water.

Distribution and formation of entisols

Entisols are widely distributed across different climatic and geomorphological regions of the world and are considered one of the most extensive soil orders in recently deposited or weakly weathered landscapes (Table 1 & Fig. 1) (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . These soils are commonly found in river valleys, coastal plains, glacial outwash areas, sand dunes, mountainous terrains, and arid regions where active erosion or sediment deposition prevents the development of mature soil horizons (Buol et al., 2011) [10] . In tropical and subtropical regions, entisols frequently occur along river floodplains where periodic flooding deposits fresh alluvium (Jenny, 1941; Pandey et al., 2018) [26,49] . In arid and semiarid environments, limited rainfall and sparse vegetation reduce weathering intensity, resulting in poor horizon development (Foth, 1990) [18]. Coastal entisols are generally sandy and highly permeable, whereas alluvial entisols may exhibit relatively better fertility because of continuous deposition of mineral-rich sediments (Sehgal, 1996; Singh et al., 2024). Physically, entisols are generally coarse-textured with sandy or loamy sand textures, weak aggregation, low water-holding capacity, and high permeability. Such physical properties enhance nutrient movement beyond the root zone and increase susceptibility to drought stress (Brady and Weil, 2016) [9] . Chemically, these soils are characterized by low cation exchange capacity, low soil organic carbon, and poor nutrient reserves. Soil reaction varies depending on parent material and environmental conditions, ranging from acidic to alkaline. Biologically, entisols often contain low microbial biomass and reduced enzymatic activity because of insufficient organic substrates and unstable environmental conditions (Paul, 2015; Kumar et al., 2024a) [29] . In India, entisols occupy significant agricultural landscapes across the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains, coastal belts, deltaic regions, desert areas of Rajasthan, and foothill regions of the Himalayas (Table 2 & Fig. 2) (ICAR, 2015). These soils are especially important in floodplain agriculture because they support cultivation of rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, pulses, and vegetables (Lal & Stewart, 2019) [41] . In coastal regions, entisols are used for coconut, cashew, and plantation crops. Despite their agricultural importance, productivity of these soils is frequently limited by nutrient deficiencies, salinity, erosion, and poor moisture retention (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . The formation or pedogenesis of entisols is strongly influenced by parent material, climate, vegetation, relief, and time (Jenny, 1941; Singh et al., 2022) [26] . Since these soils are geologically young, they exhibit minimal profile differentiation and lack well-developed subsurface horizons (Soil Survey Staff, 2014). Parent materials such as alluvium, coastal sand, volcanic ash, and weathered rock fragments play a major role in determining soil texture, mineral composition, and nutrient status (Buol et al., 2011; Tiwari et al., 2024) [10] . Continuous deposition, erosion, and flooding interrupt soil-forming processes, thereby restricting the development of mature horizons. Consequently, entisols often display considerable variability in fertility, structure, and water-holding capacity depending on local environmental conditions (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . [9] Australia Arid interior and coastal sands Desert and sandy landscapes

Grazing and dryland farming

Salinity and drought stress FAO (2015); Buol et al., (2011) [10] Brazil Amazon floodplains and coastal zones

Recent alluvial deposits

Plantation crops and soybean Nutrient depletion

Lal & Stewart (2019); Brady & Weil (2017) [9,41] Egypt Nile delta and river floodplains Alluvial river deposits Wheat and horticulture Salinity and alkalinity FAO (2015); Havlin et al., (2016) [19] Sudan Semi-arid floodplains Sandy alluvial soils Millet and sorghum Moisture stress and erosion Buol et al. (2011); Lal (2020) [10,41] Pakistan Indus basin floodplains Alluvial landscapes Wheat, cotton, rice Salinity and nutrient losses FAO (2015); Brady & Weil (2017) [9] Bangladesh Deltaic floodplains Riverine sediments Rice-based systems Flooding and nutrient depletion ICAR (2015); Lal & Stewart (2019) [41] Nigeria [9,10] Dominant texture Sandy to loamy sand Rajasthan desert, coastal Tamil Nadu, Gujarat Havlin et al. (2016); Foth (1990) [18, 19] Fertility status Generally low organic carbon and low nutrient retention Arid and semi-arid regions Srinivasarao et al., (2014); Lal (2020) [40] Major nutrient deficiencies Nitrogen, phosphorus, zinc, and iron deficiencies common Alkaline and calcareous entisols Alloway (2008); Fageria (2012) [1, 15] Important crops grown Rice, wheat, sugarcane, maize, pulses, vegetables Indo-Gangetic plains and deltaic regions Lal & Stewart (2019) [41] Major constraints Nutrient leaching, erosion, moisture stress, salinity

Rajasthan, coastal and irrigated regions

Havlin et al., (2016); Lal (2020) [19, 40] Soil reaction (pH) Acidic to alkaline depending on parent material Coastal and alluvial regions Brady & Weil (2017) [9] Management requirement Integrated nutrient management and conservation agriculture Nationwide Fageria (2012); FAO (2015) [15] Fig 2: Status and distribution of entisols in India

Physical characteristics of entisols

The physical properties of entisols play a crucial role in determining nutrient dynamics, soil fertility, moisture availability, and crop productivity (Hillel, 2004) [20] , Because these soils are weakly developed and geologically young, they generally exhibit poor structural organization and considerable variability in texture and porosity (Buol et al., 2011) [10] . The physical characteristics of entisols are strongly influenced by parent material, climate, topography, and land-use practices (Table 3) (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . In many regions, entisols are dominated by sandy or coarsetextured particles, which significantly affect water retention, nutrient-holding capacity, aeration, and root development (Foth, 1990; Soni et al., 2025) [18] . These soils are commonly associated with low aggregation and weak structural stability due to insufficient clay and organic matter content (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . Texture is one of the most important physical properties controlling nutrient dynamics in entisols. Sandy entisols exhibit rapid drainage and high infiltration rates, which increase nutrient leaching losses, particularly of nitrogen and potassium (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . Coarse-textured soils also possess low surface area and low cation exchange capacity, thereby reducing the soil's ability to retain essential nutrients. In contrast, loamy entisols may have comparatively better moisture retention and nutrient availability. However, even loamy entisols often suffer from poor aggregation because of low organic carbon content (Srinivasarao et al., 2014; Netam et al., 2025). Soil structure in entisols is generally weak and poorly developed (Foth, 1990) [18]. Lack of stable aggregates reduces root penetration and microbial activity while increasing susceptibility to erosion (Lal, 2020; Shukla et al., 2025a) [40] . Continuous tillage and low biomass return further degrade soil structure and contribute to compaction. Bulk density is often moderate to high, especially in intensively cultivated areas, which may restrict root growth and reduce soil aeration (Hillel, 2004) [20] . Poor pore continuity and low organic matter also negatively affect infiltration and water movement. Water-holding capacity is generally low in entisols because of coarse texture and limited humus content (Lal & Stewart, 2019) [41] . Consequently, crops cultivated on these soils frequently experience drought stress during dry periods. Low moisture retention also affects nutrient uptake efficiency and microbial activity. In addition, entisols are highly vulnerable to both wind and water erosion, especially under sparse vegetation cover and improper management practices (Lal, 2020) [40] . Erosion removes nutrient-rich topsoil and accelerates soil degradation. (2016) [9,19] Structure Weak, single-grained or massive structure Poor aggregation leads to erosion susceptibility and low root anchorage Brady & Weil (2017); Foth (1990) [9,18] Bulk density Moderate to high, especially in cultivated sandy soils

Restricts root penetration and reduces aeration in compact zones (Hillel, 2004) [20] ; Brady & Weil (2017) [9] Porosity High macroporosity but poor pore continuity in sandy entisols Rapid drainage and low water retention efficiency Lal (2020); Foth (1990) [18,40] Water-holding capacity Very low due to sandy texture and low organic matter

Frequent drought stress and low nutrient uptake efficiency

Lal & Stewart (2019); Brady & Weil (2017) [9,41] Permeability / infiltration Very high infiltration rate in sandy entisols Enhances nutrient leaching (N, K, S losses)

Havlin et al. (2016); Brady & Weil (2017) [9,19] Erodibility High susceptibility to wind and water erosion

Loss of topsoil and nutrient-rich surface layer Lal (2020); Morgan (2005) [40] Colour [20] ; Lal (2020) [40] 4. Chemical characteristics of entisols Chemical properties of entisols strongly influence nutrient availability, soil fertility, microbial activity, and crop productivity. Due to weak profile development and low organic matter accumulation, these soils generally exhibit poor nutrient retention and low fertility status. The chemical composition of entisols varies considerably depending on parent material, climatic conditions, vegetation, and landuse systems. Important chemical characteristics include soil pH, organic carbon content, cation exchange capacity (CEC), electrical conductivity (EC), and nutrient availability (Table 4). These parameters collectively determine nutrient transformations and fertilizer use efficiency in entisols (Najdenko et al., 2024; Yadav et al., 2025) [46] . Soil pH in entisols ranges from acidic to alkaline depending on climatic conditions and mineral composition. Entisols occurring in humid regions are often acidic because of intense leaching of basic cations, whereas those in arid and semi-arid regions are generally alkaline or calcareous. Soil pH significantly affects nutrient solubility and microbial processes. Under acidic conditions, phosphorus fixation by iron and aluminum compounds becomes dominant, while alkaline conditions reduce the availability of micronutrients such as zinc, iron, manganese, and copper (Hou et al., 2020; Niharika & Takankhar, 2025) [21,47] . Organic carbon content in entisols is generally low due to rapid decomposition, low biomass accumulation, and poor residue incorporation. Low organic matter negatively affects nutrient retention, aggregate stability, microbial activity, and moisture conservation. Since organic matter acts as a reservoir of nutrients, its deficiency limits nitrogen mineralization and reduces overall soil fertility. Similarly, low clay and humus content contribute to reduced cation exchange capacity, thereby limiting the soil's ability to retain positively charged nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, and ammonium (Singh et al., 2020; Bouhia et al., 2022) [8] . Electrical conductivity is usually low in well-drained entisols, but salinity problems may develop in coastal and irrigated regions due to salt accumulation. Salinity adversely affects nutrient uptake, osmotic balance, and plant growth. Nutrient availability in entisols is often constrained by rapid leaching, low organic matter, and unfavorable pH conditions. Nitrogen and phosphorus deficiencies are common, while micronutrient deficiencies such as zinc and iron frequently occur in alkaline soils (Huang et al., 2020; Niharika & Takankhar, 2025) [22,47] . [21,47] Organic carbon Generally low due to weak horizon development and poor organic matter accumulation

Poor nutrient retention and low microbial activity

Singh et al., (2020); Bouhia et al., (2022) [8] CEC Usually low, especially in sandy entisols Reduced nutrient holding capacity Huang et al., (2020) [22] Electrical conductivity Variable; saline conditions may occur in irrigated and coastal regions Salinity stress and poor nutrient uptake Najdenko et al., (2024) [46] Nitrogen availability [50] Micronutrient status

Zn and Fe deficiencies are common in alkaline entisols Chlorosis and low productivity Soil Properties and Microelement

Nutrient dynamics in entisols

Nutrient dynamics in entisols are highly complex and are influenced by soil texture, mineral composition, climate, organic matter content, microbial activity, and management practices (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . Because entisols are weakly developed and coarse-textured, they generally possess low nutrient retention capacity and high nutrient mobility (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . Nutrient transformations such as mineralization, immobilization, nitrification, denitrification, adsorption, fixation, and leaching play important roles in determining nutrient availability for crop growth (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Understanding nutrient dynamics is therefore essential for improving fertilizer efficiency and maintaining long-term soil fertility in entisols (Srinivasarao et al., 2014).

Nitrogen dynamics

Nitrogen is one of the most limiting nutrients in entisols because of its high mobility and susceptibility to losses through leaching, volatilization, and denitrification (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . Organic matter decomposition releases ammonium ions through mineralization, which are subsequently converted into nitrate through nitrification processes mediated by soil microorganisms (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . Since nitrate ions are highly soluble, they are easily leached beyond the root zone under excessive rainfall or irrigation conditions. Sandy entisols with high infiltration rates are therefore particularly vulnerable to nitrogen losses (Foth, 1990) [18]. Ammonia volatilization also contributes to nitrogen depletion, especially under alkaline soil conditions and surface application of urea fertilizers (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Under waterlogged conditions, denitrification processes convert nitrate into gaseous nitrogen forms, thereby reducing nitrogen availability to crops. Poor organic matter content further limits nitrogen storage and mineralization capacity in entisols. Consequently, nitrogen-use efficiency in these soils is generally low, requiring split fertilizer applications and integrated nutrient management strategies for sustainable crop production (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . Low soil organic carbon further restricts microbial-mediated nitrogen mineralization processes. Studies have shown that continuous use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers without organic amendments accelerates nutrient depletion and soil degradation in entisols (Srinivasarao et al., 2019). Integrated nutrient management practices involving farmyard manure, compost, crop residues, and biofertilizers significantly improve nitrogen retention, microbial activity, and nutrientuse efficiency.

Phosphorus dynamics

Phosphorus dynamics in entisols are primarily controlled by adsorption, precipitation, and fixation reactions (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Although phosphorus is less mobile than nitrogen, its availability is often restricted because of chemical fixation in soil. In acidic entisols, phosphorus reacts with iron and aluminum oxides to form insoluble compounds, whereas in alkaline soils it precipitates with calcium compounds (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . These fixation processes reduce phosphorus availability to plants despite fertilizer application. Soil pH strongly influences phosphorus solubility and plant uptake. Maximum phosphorus availability generally occurs near neutral pH conditions (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . Low organic matter content and weak microbial activity in entisols also reduce phosphorus mineralization from organic residues. [19] . Consequently, potassium losses through leaching are common, particularly in highrainfall environments.

Potassium availability is also affected by weathering of primary minerals such as feldspars and micas (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . However, because entisols are geologically young, the extent of mineral weathering varies considerably depending on parent material. Continuous cropping without balanced potassium fertilization gradually depletes soil potassium reserves and negatively affects crop productivity (Fageria, 2012) [15] .

Sulfur dynamics

Sulfur is an essential secondary nutrient involved in protein synthesis, enzyme activity, and chlorophyll formation (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . In entisols, sulfur dynamics are largely controlled by organic matter content and sulfate mobility. Sulfur is mainly present in organic forms, which are mineralized by soil microorganisms into sulfate ions available for plant uptake (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . Because sulfate ions are highly mobile in coarse-textured soils, sulfur leaching losses are common in sandy entisols. Low organic matter and intensive cultivation often reduce sulfur reserves in entisols, resulting in sulfur deficiency symptoms such as chlorosis and reduced plant growth (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Sulfur management through gypsum application, organic amendments, and balanced fertilization is therefore important for maintaining crop productivity.

Micronutrient dynamics

Micronutrient availability in entisols is strongly influenced by soil pH, organic matter content, redox conditions, and parent material composition (Alloway, 2008) [1] . Zinc, iron, manganese, and copper are among the most important micronutrients affecting crop growth and metabolism. In alkaline entisols, zinc and iron deficiencies are particularly common because high pH reduces their solubility and plant availability (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . Iron chlorosis is frequently observed in calcareous soils where bicarbonate ions interfere with iron uptake. Organic matter plays a significant role in micronutrient retention and chelation (Fageria, 2012; Singh et al., 2025) [15] . Low organic carbon levels therefore reduce micronutrient availability and increase deficiency risks.

Excessive phosphorus fertilization may also induce zinc deficiency due to nutrient antagonism. Sustainable micronutrient management involving soil application, foliar sprays, and organic amendments is essential for maintaining balanced nutrition and crop productivity in entisols (Alloway, 2008) [1] .

Major fertility constraints in entisols

Entisols are considered inherently fragile soils because of their poor nutrient retention capacity, weak structural stability, low organic matter content, and high susceptibility to erosion and nutrient depletion (Brady & Weil, 2017; Buol et al., 2011) [9,10] . These soils often face multiple fertilityrelated problems that severely limit agricultural productivity and sustainability. The major fertility constraints in entisols are associated with rapid nutrient losses, moisture stress, salinity, micronutrient deficiencies, and degradation caused by continuous cultivation. Since most entisols possess sandy to loamy texture with minimal horizon development, they are unable to efficiently retain water and nutrients, thereby reducing fertilizer use efficiency and crop response (Lal & Stewart, 2019) [41] .

Low Organic matter

Low organic matter content is one of the most serious fertility constraints in entisols (Srinivasarao et al., 2014). Rapid decomposition of plant residues under high temperature conditions and inadequate addition of organic biomass reduce soil organic carbon accumulation. Since organic matter serves as a reservoir of nutrients and improves soil structure, its deficiency adversely affects nutrient retention, aggregation, microbial activity, and moisture-holding capacity (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Low organic carbon also limits nitrogen mineralization and reduces soil biological activity, thereby negatively affecting nutrient cycling and crop growth (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] .

Nutrient leaching

Nutrient leaching is another major problem in entisols, particularly in coarse-textured sandy soils with high infiltration rates (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . Nitrogen, potassium, sulfur, and other soluble nutrients are highly susceptible to downward movement beyond the root zone during rainfall or excessive irrigation. Such nutrient losses reduce fertilizer use efficiency and increase production costs. Nitrate leaching may additionally contaminate groundwater resources and create environmental concerns (Lal, 2020) [40] . Poor cation exchange capacity further accelerates nutrient losses from these soils.

Soil erosion

Soil erosion is a major land degradation problem affecting entisols because of weak aggregation, sparse vegetation cover, and unstable soil structure (Lal, 2020; Mohale et al., 2025) [40,45] . Wind erosion is especially severe in arid and semi-arid entisols, whereas water erosion dominates in sloping and high-rainfall regions. Erosion removes nutrientrich topsoil containing organic matter, clay particles, and plant nutrients, thereby reducing soil fertility and crop productivity (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . Continuous cultivation without conservation measures further aggravates soil degradation.

Moisture stress

Moisture stress is another important limitation associated with entisols due to their low water-holding capacity and rapid drainage characteristics (Lal & Stewart, 2019) [41] .

Coarse-textured entisols retain limited amounts of water, resulting in frequent drought stress during dry periods. Insufficient soil moisture restricts nutrient dissolution and root uptake, thereby reducing crop growth and yield. Water stress also negatively affects microbial activity and nutrient mineralization processes (Foth, 1990; Shukla et al., 2025b) [18] .

Salinity and sodicity

Salinity and sodicity problems frequently occur in coastal and irrigated entisols where soluble salts and sodium ions accumulate in the root zone (Rengasamy, 2010). High salinity creates osmotic stress and restricts water absorption by plants, while sodicity deteriorates soil structure and reduces permeability. Salt-affected entisols often exhibit poor aeration, crust formation, and nutrient imbalance, which negatively affect crop productivity (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . Improper irrigation and inadequate drainage further intensify salinity problems.

Micronutrient deficiencies

Micronutrient deficiencies, particularly zinc and iron deficiencies, are widespread in entisols under alkaline and calcareous conditions (Alloway, 2008) [1] . High soil pH reduces micronutrient solubility and availability, leading to chlorosis, stunted growth, reduced enzyme activity, and lower crop yields. Deficiencies of manganese, copper, and boron may also occur depending on soil properties and cropping systems (Table 5) (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Continuous cultivation and imbalanced fertilizer use further aggravate micronutrient depletion in these soils. [40]

Soil erosion

Weak aggregation Loss of fertile topsoil Brady & Weil., (2017) [9] Moisture stress Low water retention Reduced nutrient uptake Lal & Stewart, (2019) [41] Salinity and sodicity Salt accumulation Poor root growth Havlin et al., (2016) [19]

Zinc deficiency

High soil pH Reduced enzyme activity Alloway., (2008) [1]

Iron chlorosis

Calcareous conditions Yellowing of leaves Alloway., (2008) [1]

Factors affecting nutrient dynamics in entisols

Nutrient dynamics in entisols are strongly influenced by several interacting environmental and management-related factors, including climate, parent material, land-use systems, irrigation practices, and organic matter management (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . These factors regulate nutrient transformations, mobility, retention, and availability within the soil system. Because entisols are weakly developed and highly sensitive to environmental changes, even slight alterations in management practices can significantly affect nutrient cycling and soil fertility status.

Climate

Climate is one of the most important factors controlling nutrient dynamics in Entisols (Lal & Stewart, 2019) [41] . Temperature and rainfall influence weathering processes, organic matter decomposition, microbial activity, and nutrient mobility. High rainfall conditions increase nutrient leaching, especially in sandy soils, leading to severe losses of nitrogen, potassium, sulfur, and other soluble nutrients (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . High temperatures accelerate decomposition and mineralization of organic matter, which may temporarily increase nutrient availability but eventually reduce soil organic carbon levels (Foth, 1990; Tekam et al., 2025) [18] .

Parent material

Parent material plays a major role in determining mineral composition, texture, nutrient reserve, and soil reaction (Buol et al., 2011) [10] . Entisols derived from alluvial deposits often contain relatively higher nutrient reserves compared to sandy coastal entisols. Calcareous parent materials contribute to alkaline soil conditions that reduce availability of micronutrients such as zinc and iron (Alloway, 2008; Vaishnav et al., 2025) [1] . Mineral weathering and clay mineralogy additionally influence potassium dynamics and nutrient retention capacity.

Land use systems

Land-use systems and cropping practices significantly affect Nutrient cycling and soil fertility (Tisdale et al., 1993). Intensive cultivation without balanced nutrient replenishment accelerates nutrient depletion and soil degradation. Continuous monocropping, excessive tillage, and residue removal reduce soil organic matter and microbial activity (Srinivasarao et al., 2014). Conversely, crop rotation, cover cropping, and residue incorporation improve nutrient recycling and enhance soil fertility.

Irrigation practices

Irrigation practices strongly influence nutrient movement, leaching, and salinity development in entisols (Rengasamy, 2010). Excessive irrigation increases nutrient leaching losses and may induce waterlogging or salt accumulation in poorly drained areas. Efficient irrigation methods such as drip irrigation help conserve water and improve nutrient-use efficiency (FAO, 2013). Balanced irrigation scheduling is therefore essential for maintaining soil fertility and crop productivity.

Organic matter management

Organic matter management through application of compost, farmyard manure, green manure, and crop residues significantly improves nutrient retention and microbial activity in entisols (Srinivasarao et al., 2014). Organic amendments enhance aggregation, cation exchange capacity, water-holding capacity, and biological activity (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Residue recycling and reduced tillage additionally help conserve soil organic carbon and reduce erosion. Sustainable nutrient management in entisols therefore depends heavily on maintaining adequate organic matter levels (Table 6).

Table 6: Factors affecting nutrient dynamics in entisols

Factors

Influence on Nutrient Dynamics Citation Rainfall Increases nutrient leaching Brady & Weil (2016) [9] Temperature Accelerates decomposition Havlin et al., (2014) [19] Parent material Determines nutrient reserve USDA-NRCS (2014) Cropping system Influences nutrient cycling Havlin et al., (2014) [19] Irrigation Affects nutrient movement FAO (2015) Organic matter Improves nutrient retention Brady & Weil (2016) [9] Tillage practices Alters soil structure and fertility Indian Society of Soil Science (2012)

Management strategies for improving fertility in entisols

Improvement of fertility in entisols requires integrated and sustainable management strategies because these soils are inherently low in nutrient retention, organic matter, and water-holding capacity (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . Efficient soil management practices are essential to minimize nutrient losses, improve soil structure, enhance microbial activity, and increase crop productivity. Modern fertility management approaches focus on combining organic amendments, balanced fertilization, conservation agriculture, and precision nutrient management to maintain long-term soil health and sustainability (Lal, 2020) [40] .

Integrated nutrient management (INM)

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) is considered one of the most effective approaches for managing fertility in entisols (Fageria, 2012) [15] . INM involves combined use of organic manures, inorganic fertilizers, crop residues, and biofertilizers to improve nutrient availability and fertilizer use efficiency. Organic amendments such as farmyard manure, compost, green manure, and vermicompost enhance soil organic carbon, aggregation, microbial activity, and moisture retention (Srinivasarao et al., 2014). These materials also improve cation exchange capacity and reduce nutrient leaching losses (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . Biofertilizers such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria and phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms contribute to sustainable nutrient supply and improve soil biological activity (Vessey, 2003). Balanced use of organic and inorganic nutrient sources therefore helps maintain longterm soil fertility and crop productivity.

Organic matter management

Organic matter management plays a central role in improving physical, chemical, and biological properties of entisols (Srinivasarao et al., 2014). Application of farmyard manure (FYM), compost, crop residues, green manure, and vermicompost increases soil organic carbon and enhances nutrient retention capacity. Organic materials improve aggregate stability, infiltration, moisture conservation, and microbial activity (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Green manuring with leguminous crops additionally contributes biological nitrogen fixation and improves soil fertility. Regular addition of organic residues is therefore essential for sustaining productivity in Entisols.

Conservation practices

Conservation practices are important for reducing soil erosion, conserving moisture, and improving nutrient-use efficiency in entisols (Lal, 2020) [40] . Mulching protects the soil surface from erosion and evaporation while improving water infiltration and temperature regulation (FAO, 2017). Cover cropping reduces nutrient losses and improves organic matter accumulation. Contour farming and strip cropping help minimize runoff and soil erosion on sloping lands. Reduced tillage practices minimize soil disturbance, conserve organic carbon, and enhance aggregate stability. Such conservation-based approaches significantly improve long-term soil health and sustainability.

Micronutrient management

Micronutrient deficiencies, particularly zinc and iron deficiencies, are common in entisols under alkaline conditions (Alloway, 2008) [1] . Application of zinc sulfate, iron chelates, boron fertilizers, and foliar nutrient sprays helps correct micronutrient deficiencies and improve crop growth. Organic amendments additionally increase micronutrient availability through chelation and improved microbial activity (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Soil testing and balanced fertilization are essential for diagnosing and correcting micronutrient imbalances.

Precision nutrient management

Precision nutrient management involves site-specific fertilizer recommendations based on soil testing, crop requirement, and nutrient status (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . Modern tools such as remote sensing, GIS, sensors, and decision-support systems help improve nutrient-use efficiency and reduce environmental pollution (Subramanian et al., 2015). Split fertilizer application and fertigation are especially beneficial in entisols because they minimize nutrient leaching losses and enhance nutrient availability during critical crop growth stages. Adoption of precision nutrient management therefore contributes significantly to sustainable agricultural productivity (Table 7). [19] 9. Role of microorganisms in nutrient cycling Soil microorganisms play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, mineralization, nutrient solubilization, and maintenance of soil fertility in entisols (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . Because entisols generally possess low organic matter and weak nutrient retention capacity, microbial activity becomes extremely important for sustaining nutrient availability and improving soil productivity. Soil microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, and protozoa contribute significantly to biogeochemical transformations of essential nutrients including nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and micronutrients (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Rhizobacteria are among the most important beneficial microorganisms associated with nutrient cycling in entisols. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) enhance plant growth through biological nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, phytohormone production, and suppression of soil-borne pathogens (Vessey, 2003). Nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter, and Azospirillum convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-available forms, thereby improving nitrogen availability in nutrient-poor soils (Havlin et al., 2016) [19] . Similarly, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria increase phosphorus availability by releasing organic acids that dissolve insoluble phosphate compounds. Mycorrhizal fungi also play a major role in improving nutrient uptake and soil health in entisols (Smith & Read, 2008). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi establish symbiotic associations with plant roots and enhance absorption of phosphorus, zinc, copper, and water from the soil. Mycorrhizae additionally improve plant tolerance against drought, salinity, and environmental stress conditions commonly observed in entisols. Microbial decomposition of crop residues and organic amendments contributes to mineralization and release of nutrients into the soil solution (Table 8) (Brady & Weil, 2017) [9] . Soil microorganisms also improve aggregate stability through production of organic binding substances that enhance soil structure and reduce erosion. Therefore, maintenance of microbial diversity through organic matter management, reduced tillage, and biofertilizer application is essential for sustaining nutrient cycling and long-term fertility in entisols. [9] Actinomycetes Nutrient mineralization Brady & Weil, (2017) [9] 10. Sustainable management and climate resilience Sustainable management of entisols is essential for maintaining long-term agricultural productivity, environmental quality, and resilience against climate change (Lal, 2004) [38] . Because entisols are highly vulnerable to nutrient depletion, erosion, drought, and salinity, climateresilient soil management practices are increasingly important for improving soil health and sustaining crop yields under changing environmental conditions (FAO, 2013). Sustainable management strategies focus on improving soil organic carbon, enhancing nutrient use efficiency, conserving soil moisture, and reducing land degradation. Carbon sequestration through incorporation of crop residues, compost, green manure, and conservation tillage plays an important role in improving soil quality and mitigating climate change (Lal, 2004) [38] . Increased soil organic carbon enhances aggregate stability, water-holding capacity, microbial activity, and nutrient retention in entisols. Conservation agriculture practices such as reduced tillage, residue retention, crop rotation, and cover cropping help minimize erosion and improve nutrient cycling (FAO, 2017). These practices also enhance resilience of crops against drought and temperature stress. Climate-smart agriculture integrates sustainable soil management with efficient resource use and adaptation strategies (FAO, 2013). Efficient irrigation methods such as drip irrigation and sprinkler systems reduce nutrient leaching and improve water use efficiency in coarsetextured entisols. Integrated nutrient management involving organic manures, chemical fertilizers, and biofertilizers ensures balanced nutrient supply and minimizes environmental pollution (Fageria, 2012) [15] . Agroforestry systems additionally contribute to soil conservation, carbon storage, and biodiversity enhancement. Long-term fertility restoration in entisols requires continuous monitoring of soil health and adoption of environmentally sustainable management practices (Srinivasarao et al., 2014). Maintenance of vegetation cover, afforestation, residue recycling, and erosion control measures are important for preserving soil productivity. Therefore, sustainable and climate-resilient management practices are essential for enhancing the ecological stability and agricultural sustainability of entisols under future climate change scenarios.

Conclusion

Entisols are among the most fragile and weakly developed soil orders, characterized by structural development, low organic matter content, weak nutrient-retention capacity, and high susceptibility to erosion, nutrient leaching, and moisture stress. Although these soils support extensive agricultural activities in floodplains, coastal regions, and arid ecosystems, their long-term productivity is often constrained by nitrogen losses, phosphorus fixation, potassium depletion, sulfur deficiency, salinity, and micronutrient imbalances, particularly zinc and iron deficiencies. Nutrient dynamics in entisols are strongly influenced by soil texture, climate, parent material, pH, irrigation, and land management practices. Continuous cultivation, excessive tillage, residue removal, and indiscriminate fertilizer application further accelerate soil degradation and fertility decline. The review emphasizes that sustainable management of entisols requires integrated nutrient management approaches involving balanced fertilization, organic amendments, crop residue recycling, conservation tillage, cover cropping, and precision nutrient management. Beneficial soil microorganisms such as rhizobacteria and mycorrhizae also play significant roles in nutrient cycling, nutrient solubilization, and improvement of soil biological activity. Climate-resilient strategies including carbon sequestration, conservation agriculture, efficient irrigation systems, and climate-smart farming practices are increasingly important for enhancing soil health and maintaining agricultural sustainability. Adoption of these integrated and eco-friendly management practices can substantially improve nutrient-use efficiency, crop productivity, environmental quality, and resilience of entisols under changing climatic conditions.

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