Socio-economic profile and livelihood dynamics of buffalo rearers in Dholpur District, Rajasthan

Introduction

The livestock sector occupies a unique position in India's agrarian economy, serving as a major continuous income-generating activity for rural households and providing sustenance and financial stability to millions of farmers across the country (Thakur et al., 2024) [29] . Livestock rearing and crop husbandry are two important components of mixed farming that influence agricultural economy, leading to sustainable agriculture as they are complementary to each other. The livestock and fisheries sector contributes over 4.07% of the total GDP of India as per the Economic Survey 2024-25, with this contribution showing consistent growth over the years. A symbiotic relationship exists between men, land and livestock and India has been graced with the world's largest livestock population. The livestock sector contributes 4.11% to total GDP and 25.6% to the agriculture sector (Annual Report 2018-19, Department of Animal Husbandry). Among livestock species, buffaloes represent the greatest promise for food security and sustainable development in the twenty-first century, as they are an essential component of India's traditional farming system. In India, buffaloes have been the backbone of the rural economy, serving as the mainstay in the production of butter and ghee, which are integral to Indian culinary traditions and nutritional practices (Mishra et al., 2024; Avinashilingam et al., 2011) [13,1] . The contribution of buffaloes to India's milk pool, while still substantial, has seen a slight shift in recent years, with cattle accounting for about 53.5% of milk output by 2024-25, surpassing buffaloes' contribution of 43.1%. India is home to some of the world's finest buffalo breeds, each adapted to specific agroecological conditions. The Murrah, originating from Haryana and Punjab, is perhaps the most renowned dairy breed, known for its high milk yield and fat content. The Murrah buffalo has been the subject of intensive research at institutions like the ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, where scientists have been working to enhance its productivity and resilience. However, recent research highlights that the Murrah breed is highly susceptible to climate-change induced heat stress due to their physiological characteristics, making livelihoods dependent on Murrah-based livestock production systems highly vulnerable even in their breeding tract. Indigenous breeds such as Murrah, Mehsana and Jaffarabadi are uniquely suited to Indian conditions, being acquainted with natural climate adaptation and carrying massive cultural significance (Kumar et al.,2011; Jain et al., 2025) [11,8] . The future of buffalo production in India lies in the judicious integration of traditional knowledge with modern scientific advances (Gupta et al., 2008; Jain et al., 2025) [5,8] . However, few efforts are known to have been made to systematically study buffalo management practices in rural areas. The information available and the notation prevalent on the subject have been based on assumptions, usual observations, experience and reports of some specialists and professional workers. Since management practices vary from one lactation to another, it is necessary to determine the strengths and limitations of rearing systems followed by dairy farmers. The present study was therefore conducted in Dholpur district of Rajasthan to document and evaluate the breeding, feeding, management and healthcare practices of dairy buffaloes, as such studies have not been carried out earlier in the district.

Materials and Methods

Area of the Study

The present study was undertaken in Dholpur district of Rajasthan. The district is bounded by the state of Uttar Pradesh on the east and northeast, by Bharatpur District of Rajasthan on the northwest and Karauli District of Rajasthan on the west. Dholpur district is situated in the eastern part of Rajasthan, located at 26°42'42'' North Latitude and 77°54'0'' East Longitude. It is the smallest district of Rajasthan state, sitting gracefully on the left bank of the illustrious Chambal River, with an area of 3,043 km². Dholpur has low to high hills of sandstone, with these hills attaining an altitude up to 356.91 meters above sea level in the south-western direction.

Sampling Techniques

The investigation included the selection of district, tehsils, villages and respondents covered under the study.

Selection of District

Dholpur district was purposely selected for the present study because studies on evaluation of breeding, feeding, management and healthcare of dairy buffaloes had not been carried out earlier in the district.

Selection of Tehsils

There is total six tehsils in Dholpur district, out of which four tehsils-Bari, Saipau, Dholpur and Baseri were selected on the basis of the highest buffalo population.

Bari: One of the four administrative subdivisions and six tehsils of Dholpur district, selected due to its high concentration of livestock, indicating that animal husbandry is a prominent occupation in this tehsil.

Saipau:

Officially one of the six tehsils comprising Dholpur district. The selection of Saipau for this research, driven by its high livestock numbers, highlights its importance in the district's overall animal husbandry sector.

Dholpur: As the district headquarters, it is one of the four sub-divisions and six tehsils in the district. It is a significant urban center, with 20.51% of the district's population living in urban areas. Its selection suggests a substantial peri-urban and rural interface where animal husbandry is a key livelihood activity.

Baseri: Recognized as one of the key sub-divisions and six tehsils within Dholpur district. Its inclusion points to the tehsil's reliance on and potential for dairy and livestock farming.

Selection of Villages and Respondents

A list of dairy farmers having dairying as their subsidiary occupation was collected from village dairy cooperatives, Sarpanch and Patwari. From each of the four tehsils, five villages were selected, making a total of 20 villages. From each village, 12 respondents were selected based on their herd size categories: 1-2 buffaloes, 3-5 buffaloes and more than 6 buffaloes. Thus, a sample of 240 dairy farmers formed the groups of respondents.

Data Collection

The interview schedule was divided into four major areas covering information regarding socio-economic status, feeding practices, breeding practices, milking practices, health care, housing and marketing. Data were collected by personal interviewing from the selected buffalo farmers using pretested schedules.

Socio-Economic Variables Studied

The following socio-economic variables were assessed: The data were analyzed using the statistical technique outlined by Snedecor and Cochran (1996).

Results and Discussion

Socio-Economic Profile of Buffalo Owners

The data presented in [7] , who documented that rural livestock farmer consisted of 57%, 30% and 13% from small, medium, and large families, respectively, in Gujarat's Surat district. Sarita et al. (2016) [24] also noted in a Hisar district study that most dairy farmers were middle-aged. Similarly, Pata et al. (2018) [15] reported that a large segment of buffalo owners in Gujarat belonged to the middle-age group. Mishra et al. (2024) [13] in Katni district also reported a similar profile, with farmers predominantly under 50 years old. Jain et al. (2025) [8] noted that the largest proportion of buffalo keepers (63.54%) were aged below 55 years in the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh. Table 2 shows that Scheduled Tribes (ST) constituted the largest group, accounting for 42.92% of the total respondents, followed by Other Backward Classes (OBC) at 26.90% and General Category at 26.47%. Scheduled Castes (SC) represented only 3.72%. A striking observation was that all 60 respondents from Baseri tehsil belonged to the ST category, while Dholpur tehsil had no OBC respondents and Saipau and Baseri had no General category farmers. This resulted in a highly significant (p < 0.001), confirming a strong association between caste and geographical location. The predominance of Scheduled Tribes in livestock rearing is consistent with the findings of Jain et al. (2025) [8] , who found that a substantial portion of buffalo farmers (69.79%) were from Scheduled Tribes in the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh. This indicates that livestock rearing is a critical livelihood activity for tribal communities, serving as a source of continuous income and nutritional security. The significant variation across tehsils reflects the demographic composition of the district, with certain areas being predominantly tribal. The educational status of respondents ( [24] and Pata et al. (2018) [15] , who found a majority of literate dairy farmers in their respective study areas. However, it contrasts with the findings of Jain et al. (2025) [8] in Bastar, where a concerning illiteracy rate of 73.95% was reported, highlighting regional disparities in educational attainment.

The occupational pattern ( [29] , who determined that the economic standing of rural livestock rearers was weak, with traditional husbandry methods being a primary obstacle limiting livestock productivity. Table 5 shows that the majority of farmers (62.50%) fell within the middle annual income bracket of ₹1,00,000 -₹2,50,000, with a smaller proportion in the lower (27.08%) and higher (10.42%) income categories. Dholpur tehsil had the highest proportion of farmers in the lower income category (38.33%) and the lowest in the higher income category (5.00%). The non-significant p-value (0.113) suggests similar income levels across tehsils. This moderate income level may limit the capacity for significant investment in high-cost inputs like quality feed, advanced breeding stock, or improved housing. The findings align with Thakur et al. (2025) [29] , who characterized the economic standing of livestock rearers in the Mahakaushal region as "weak," with deficiencies in feed and fodder availability being a primary obstacle. The majority of households (57.92%) were nuclear, while 42.08% were joint families (Table 6). Across all tehsils, nuclear families dominated, ranging from 53.33% in Saipau to 63.33% in Dholpur. The non-significant p-value (0.113) indicates no significant difference across tehsils. The prevalence of nuclear families could imply limited availability of family labour for farm operations, potentially necessitating hired labour, especially during peak seasons. This finding aligns with Sarita et al. (2016) [24] , who noted a prevalence of nuclear families among dairy farmers in Hisar, and with Jadav et al. (2014) [7] , who documented that rural livestock farmer consisted of 57%, 30%, and 13% from small, medium, and large families, respectively. The majority of households (57.92%) were nuclear, while 42.08% were joint families (Table 6). Across all tehsils, nuclear families dominated, ranging from 53.33% in Saipau to 63.33% in Dholpur. The non-significant p-value (0.113)

indicates no significant difference across tehsils. The prevalence of nuclear families could imply limited availability of family labour for farm operations, potentially necessitating hired labour, especially during peak seasons. This finding aligns with Sarita et al. (2016) [24] , who noted a prevalence of nuclear families among dairy farmers in Hisar, and with Jadav et al. (2014) [7] , who documented that rural livestock farmer consisted of 57%, 30%, and 13% from small, medium and large families, respectively. Land holding size (Table 7) was predominantly medium (5-10 bighas), accounting for 57.08% of respondents, followed by small (1-5 bighas) at 26.67% and large (10-15 bighas) at 16.25%. Saipau tehsil had the highest proportion of medium farmers (68.33%), while Bari had the highest proportion of large farmers (25.00%). This distribution varied significantly across tehsils (p = 0.0006).

The possession of medium land holdings provides a reasonable base for fodder cultivation, which is crucial for reducing feed costs and ensuring the nutritional security of the herd. This factor was highlighted by Mishra et al. (2024) [13] and Thakur et al. (2025) [29] as a key determinant of livestock productivity. The significant variation across tehsils reflects the different agro-ecological conditions and land availability patterns in the district. A mix of house types was observed (Table 8): the largest group lived in mixed (kuccha-pukka) houses (42.92%), followed by pukka (35.00%) and kuccha (22.08%) houses.

Dholpur tehsil had the highest proportion of pukka houses (46.67%), while Baseri had the highest proportion of kuccha houses (30.00%). There was no significant difference (p = 0.092) across tehsils. The type of house serves as a proxy indicator of the overall economic condition, with a majority having semi-pucca or pucca houses, suggesting a relatively better economic status compared to those in kuccha dwellings. This economic stratification may influence the capacity to invest in improved animal housing and management practices. The analysis of herd composition (Table 9) reveals a strong focus on dairy production across all tehsils. The herd is predominantly composed of milch buffaloes and heifers. For instance, in Bari tehsil, the villages of Singroi and Umarah collectively account for 26 milch and 18 heifers, while only 6 dry and 3 advanced pregnant animals are reported. Similarly, in Saipau, milch (15) and heifers (11) are the dominant categories.

A notable observation is the complete absence of bullocks reported across all tehsils. This indicates that farmers are not using their buffaloes for draught power and are likely relying on mechanization or other animals for agricultural operations. This specialization towards milk production underscores the primary economic motivation for buffalo rearing in Dholpur district. The presence of a substantial number of heifers is a positive sign for the future sustainability and growth of the dairy enterprise.

Conclusion

The study on management practices of buffalo in Dholpur district of Rajasthan reveals several important findings regarding the socio-economic profile of buffalo owners and existing management practices. The following conclusions can be drawn: The majority of buffalo owners (48.73%) were middle-aged (26-52 years), which is a favourable demographic for adopting improved management practices.

Scheduled Tribes (42.92%) dominated the livestock rearing community, indicating the importance of buffalo farming for tribal livelihoods. With 77.04% of farmers being literate (primary and secondary education), there exists a foundation for extension services and technology dissemination. However, only 10.01% had education beyond senior secondary, limiting access to advanced technical knowledge.

Buffalo rearing was predominantly a subsidiary occupation, with 40.00% combining it with agriculture and 37.92% combining it with labour. This indicates that animal husbandry serves as a supplementary income source and risk mitigation strategy. Most farmers possessed medium land holdings (5-10 bighas) and a middle annual income bracket (₹1,00,000-₹2,50,000), providing a moderate but limited resource base for investment in improved practices. The complete absence of bullocks and predominance of milch buffaloes and heifers indicates a clear commercial orientation towards milk production, rather than dual-purpose use. The prevalence of nuclear families (57.92%) may limit labour availability, while the moderate economic status may constrain investment in quality inputs like feed, healthcare and improved housing.

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