Nutritional composition, ethnobotanical uses and pollinator fauna of Madhuca longifolia: A systematic review

Introduction

Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) belongs to the family Sapotaceae and is an important economic tree due to its nutritious and delicious flowers and fruits. In tribal and rural communities, Madhuca flowers are utilized as food for both humans and wild animals (Bisht et al., 2018) [20] . Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are the backbone of the Indian forest economy, contributing over 50% of forest revenues. Madhuca longifolia (mahua flower) is one of the most important NTFPs and plays a major role in the tribal economy (Ramadan et al., 2016) [102] . Mahua provides livelihood security to underprivileged communities who collect its flowers for both self-consumption and sale (FGLG 2008) [32] . However, Mahua gatherers in most tribal communities rarely receive the real worth of their products, which are often exchanged for basic necessities (FGLG 2008) [32] . Various parts of the mahua tree are utilized for diverse purposes. The fruits are consumed either raw or cooked, while the pulp can be processed for sugar production and the dried husk is used in the preparation of alcoholic beverages (Singh et al., 2005) [134] . The seeds are rich in oil and are also edible, commonly used as a natural sweetener in traditional foods such as kheer, halwa, burfi, and puri in mahua-producing regions (Patel and Naik, 2010) [85] . Additionally, the flowers are collected and sun-dried in open areas until they lose a substantial proportion of their moisture content, facilitating storage and further use (Mittal & Sharma, 2023). Despite its wide range of applications and economic significance, there is a lack of comprehensive scientific studies and improved post-harvest processing technologies for mahua.

Phytochemical composition

The details of secondary metabolism found in various plant parts are given as following Leaves: Phytochemical screening of leaves revealed the presence of β-carotene and xanthophylls, erthrodiol, palmitic acid, myricetin and its 3-O-arabinoside and 3-O-Lrhamnoside, quercetin and its 3-galactoside, 3-β-caproxy and 3-β-palmitoxy-olean-12-en-28-ol, oleanolic acid, βsitosterol and its 3-O-β-Dglucoside, stigmasterol, βsitosterol-β-Dglucoside, n-hexacosanol, 3β-caproxyolcan-12-en-28-ol, β-carotene, n-octacosanol, sitosterol and quercetin (Bhatnagar et al. 1972 [19,24,24,54,22,121] .

Flowers:

The major aromatic compound present in Mahua flower is 2-acetyl-1-pyrolline. Flowers are rich source of polysaccharides like D-galactose, D-glucose, Larabinose, Lrhamnose, D-xylose and D-glucuronic acid (Mishra and Usha 2019) [73] . Other chemical components present in significance constituents are quercetin, β-amyrin decanate, betullic acid, tannins, β-amyrin, β-amyrin acetate, stigma sterol and β-amyrin cinamate (Sharma et al. 2013) [121] . The major constituents divulged in phytochemical profiling of essential oil extract from Madhuca longifolia flowers are (E,E)-Farnesol (29.56%), (Z,E)-α-Farnesene (12.84%), Dendrolasin (8.95%), 2,3-Dihydrofarnesol (8.69%), (E,E)α-Farnesene (7.37%), Nonanal (5.69%), β-Farnesene (4.38%), Farnesal (3.10%), L-Linalool (2.78%), Docosane (2.72%), trans-Nerolidol (2.52%), Heneicosane (1.55%), (E,E)-Methyl farnesoate (1.40%), Eicosane (1.29%), Nonadecane (1.21%), cis-Nerolidol (0.82%), Citronellol (0.75%), Pentadecane (0.67%), 1,2-Dihydro-2,2,4trimethylquinoline (0.56%), 2-Methyldecane (0.48%), 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis (2-methylpropyl) ester (0.36%), Octadecane (0.35%), Tetradecanal (0.33%), Undecanol (0.32%) and Isopropyl myristate (0.32%) (Suryawanshi and Mokat 2019) [141] , of which, Fernasol is the major ingredient and in act as pheromone for insect and pesticides for mites (Granero et al. 2005) [41] .

Fruits and seeds: Madhuca fruits consist of quercetin, dihydroquecertin, β-sitosterol, α-and β-amyrin acetates, nhexacosanol and its 3β-Dglucoside (Bhatnagar et al. 1972, Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 2000) [19,24] . Fruit coat of M. longifolia had triterpenoid madhucic acid, isoflavone madhushazone and bis (isoflavone) named madhusalmone (Siddiqui et al. 2004) [128] . The seeds are composed of arachidic acid, oleic acid, linolelic acid, aspartic acid, lysine, Myrisic, palmitic and stearic acids, isoleucine, cystine, αalanine, glycine, and leucine, methionine, proline, threonine, myricetin, serine, quercetin, Mi-saponin A and saponin B (Sengupta and Roy 1978, Prajapati et al. 2003 [94,95] , Jha and Mazumder 2018) [118,50] .

Other plant parts: Trunk bark contained lupeolacetate, αspinasterol, erythrodiol monocaprylate, betulinic acid and oleanolic acid caprylates (Khare 2007) [54] . Tree bark showed presence of ethylcinnamate, sesquiterene alcohol, αterpeneol, 3β-monocaprylic ester of eythrodiol and 3βcapryloxy oleanolic acid and α-and βamyrin acetates (Chatterjee and Pakrashi 2000, Jan et al. 2009) [24,49] .

Biological / Pharmacological activities

The previous researchers have proved its medicinal properties against various illnesses. Each plant part possesses certain biochemically active secondary metabolite with the following biochemical activities (Table 1).

Antibacterial activity:

The acetone, aqueous and ethanolic extracts of stem and leaves of M. longifolia possess antimicrobial activity (Khond et al. 2009) [57] . Extract from stem bark of Madhuca longifolia was observed to be more biologically active leave. Methanol extract of flowers, leaves, stem and stem bark have been reported to have antimicrobial activity (Trivedi et al. 1980) [146] . Mahua flowers have been used as cooling agent, aphrodisiac, astringent, tonic, demulcent and for the treatment of acute and chronic tonsillitis, pharyngitis and bronchitis. The dried bark of Mahua possess significant antibacterial activity demonstrated against Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis and Escherichia coli by the disc diffusion technique (Nimbekar et al. 2012) [79] .

Antifungal activity:

The byproduct obtained by defatting cake of Mahua oil seeds which possess saponins and these saponins are responsible eliciting antifungal activity. The action mechanism of saponins causes leakage of cell contents thereby damaging the Trichoderma viride (Lalitha and Venkatraman 1991) [65] .

Anticancer activity:

The acetone and ethanol extracts of leaves showed the cytotoxic activity against Ehrlich ascites Carcinoma cell lines using different in vitro cytotoxic assay at 200µg/ml. Results found that both extracts exhibited significant cytotoxic activity, but higher cytotoxic activity was found in ethanol extract (Saluja et al. 2011) [114] .

Antidiabetic and antihyperglycemic activity:

The Methanolic extract of stem bark has been proven to have significant anti-diabetic activity against streptozotocin and streptozotocinnicotinamide induced diabetic models in wistar rats (Kumar et al. 2011) [61] . It also shows a dose dependent hypoglycemic activity in three animal models (normal, glucose loaded and streptozotocin induced diabetic rat) as compared with the standard antidiabetic agent glibenclamide (Dahake et al. 2010) [27] , however, ethanolic extract of bark has shown also the same effect in rats (Prashanth et al. 2010) [97] . The hydroethanolic extract of the leaves shows hypoglycemic activity when administered orally to alloxan-induced diabetic rats. The hydroethanolic extract significantly lowered blood glucose levels (Ghosh et al. 2009) [39] . The ethanolic extract of seeds was effective in reducing the plasma glucose level in normal albino rats in a dose dependent manner, producing hypoglycemic effect by stimulating the release of insulin from the β-cells and/ or increasing the uptake of glucose from the plasma (Seshagiri and Gaikwad 2007) [119] .

Anti-epileptic activity:

The results of the study led by Sandip et al. (2011) [115] demonstrated that M. longifolia extract possessed anticonvulsant activity on the animal models investigated and this provides a rationale for its use in traditional medicine for the management of epilepsy.

Anti-fertility activity:

The percentage of fertile male mice and the number of pregnancies were significantly reduced in atropine induced mice from control mice. There was complete reduction of fertility in male rat, number of pregnant females and number of litters in plant extract treated groups. The decreased sperm count and the high number of morphologically abnormal sperms indicate interference with testicular spermatogenesis induced by the use leaves of M. longifolia (Saif et al. 2020) [112] .

Anti-inflammatory:

The crude methanolic extract of aerial part of Mahua possesses anti-inflammatory activity. The methanolic extracts markedly inhibited carrageenan induced rat paw oedema (Shekhawat and Vijayvergia 2010). The ethanol extract and saponin mixture of seeds were evaluated for anti-inflammatory activity using acute (carrageenaninduced inflammation), sub-acute (formaldehyde-induced inflammation), and chronic (cotton pellet granuloma) models of inflammation in rats. The ethanol extract and saponin mixture at a dose level of 10 and 15 mg/kg and 1.5 and 3 mg/kg significantly reduced the edema induced by carrageenan in acute model of inflammation, inhibiting both phases of inflammation. Both the extracts had a more effective response than the reference drug diclofenac sodium showed, in the sub-acute inflammation model (Gaikwad et al. 2009) [35] . The ethanolic and crude alkaloidal extracts of seeds possess dose dependent inhibitory activity on carrageenan induced edema, inhibiting prostaglandins or mediators involved in prostaglandin synthesis, the second phase of inflammation. The crude alkaloid extract exhibited a significant anti-inflammatory effect (Seshagiri and Gaikwad 2007) [119] .

Antioxidant activity:

The ethanolic extract of leaves shows antioxidant activity in two dose levels of 500 mg/kg and 750 mg/kg body weight on Acetaminophen induced toxicity in rats (Palani et al. 2010) [82] . The 70% ethanolic extract of bark of Madhuca longifolia were studied for antioxidant activity. The ethanolic extract was tested by using reducing power and free radical (hydroxyl and superoxide) scavenging models (in vitro), the in vivo antioxidant activity was assessed by determining the tissue GSH and lipid peroxidation levels (Odili et al. 2010) [80] . The antioxidant activity of the bark was evaluated by free radical scavenging activity using 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazil (DPPH), reducing power assay and superoxide scavenging activity, then compared with a natural antioxidant ascorbic acid (Prashanth et al. 2010) [97] . They found sufficient amount of anti-oxidant activity.

Antipyretic activity:

The antipyretic effects of crude methanolic extract of aerial parts were evaluated by using brewer's yeast-induced pyrexia model. The oral administration of extracts produced a significant dose dependent inhibition of temperature elevation (Shekhawat and Vijayvergia 2010) [123] .

Antiulcer activity:

The ethanolic extract at a dose of 10 mg/kg showed a significant decrease in ulcer index near to that of lansoprazole used at a dose level of 40 mg/kg, while crude alkaloid extract exhibited no significant effect against pylorusligation-induced gastric ulcers (Seshagiri and Gaikwad 2007) [119] .

Analgesic activity:

The analgesic effect was screened through tail flick, hot plate and chemical graded doses of both aqueous and alcoholic extract of flowers (4.0 to 64.0 mg/kg, i.m. for 3 days) produced dose dependent analgesic effect in three nociceptive methods carried out in mice. The analgesic effect was evaluated using acetic acid-induced abdominal pains, i.e. nociception response. The methanolic extracts (50-200mg kg-1i.p) significantly reduced acetic acid-induced abdominal constrictions and stretching of hind limbs in a dose dependent manner (Shekhawat and Vijayvergia 2010) [123] .

Hepatoprotective activity: Two doses of methanolic extract of flowers of Madhuca longifolia (100 and 200 mg/kg) were administered orally to the animals with hepatotoxicity induced by paracetamol (2 gm/kg). The methanolic extract showed significant protective effect by lowering serum level and by increasing serum levels of total protein and albumin in the selected model (Umadevi et al., 2011) [147] .

Immuno-suppression: Administration of methanolic extract of M. longifolia to murines was found to decrease the total WBC count and spleen leukocyte count significantly indicating that the extract could suppress the non-specific immune system. Moreover, there was a decrement in the relative spleen weight and thymus weight (Mitra et al. 1999, Ganesh and Shrinivas 2010) [77,37] .

Insecticidal and pesticidal activity:

The paste of stem bark can be used as antidote for scorpion sting. It is also used for the treatment of ulcer, tonsillitis (Prashanth et al. 2010) [97] . Mahua cake possessed a significant insecticidal and pesticidal activity against phytonematode (Pandey et al. 2003) [83] . Mahua cake has a good pesticidal activity against Tetranychus urticae (Mani et al. 2003) [69] .

Larvicidal and Ovicidal activity:

The aqueous solution of Mahua oil cakes possessed significant larvicidal and ovicidal activities against Meloidogyne incognita (Lanjewar et al. 1986) [66] . The Mahua cakes showed significant action against larval growth from the egg-sacs of cyst nematodes (Devi and Gupta 1995) [30] .

Spasmolytic activity:

The saponins extracted from Mahua leaves possessed a significant spasmolytic activity (Banerji et al. 1985) [15] . The saponins present in the leaves and seeds showed spasmolytic property on isolated guinea pig ileum (Banerji et al. 1982) [14] .

Spermicidal activity: Eye diseases, impotency can be cured by using Mahua flowers through direct consumption in form of alcoholic drinks and halua made by fermented flowers (Prashantha et al. 2010) [97] . The steroid and triterpenoid saponins present in the seeds of M. longifolia possessed marked spermicidal activity (Banerjji et al. 1979) [13] .

Wound healing activity: Significant wound healing activity was observed in animals treated with ethanolic extracts of leaves and bark of Madhuca longifolia and compared with those who received the standard (Betadine) and control treatment. The extract treated animals showed faster epithelisation of wound respectively compared the control (Sharma et al. 2010) [122] . The active compounds found in Madhuca longifolia include: 1. Triterpenoids Bassic acid is a Triterpenoids have high anti-inflammatory properties which helps to fight against. Basic acided also proficient to have antimicrobial properties which helps to protect from microorganism. Betulinic acid is very well established for anti-cancerous properties, apart from anticancerous properties anti-HIV, and anti-inflammatory activities also present in this triterpenoids (Bhatia, et al., 2015) [18] . Lupeol is well known to contains anti-inflammatory, antioxidant properties along with a strong hepatoprotective effects.

Saponins example:

Madhucosides possesses strong antimicrobial effects agaist microorganism. Along with antimicrobial properties it also contains cytotoxic effect (Akihisa et al., 2018).

Flavonoids

Quercetin contains neuroprotective effects to protect neuron cells. It is alsos having strongowerful antioxidant with anti-inflammatory and provide cytotoxic effect. Kaempferol has anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties (et al., 2024).

Sterols

β-Sitosterol Helps in lowering cholesterol and has antiinflammatory effects. Stigmasterol exhibits anti-arthritic and hepatoprotective effects. Campesterol is known for its role in reducing cholesterol absorption (Bakrim et al., 2018).

Tannins

Ellagic acid displays highly potential antioxidant properties, anti-cancerous activity, and also anti-inflammatory activities. Gallic acid contains antimicrobial and hepatoprotective properties (Bhatt et al., 2023).

Alkaloids

According to a study, N-methylpyrrolidine reported to have strong neuroactive properties (Kamlet & Adam Seth., 2012).

Fatty Acids (from Seed Oil)

Oleic acid plays vital role in protection of cardiovascular health. Linoleic acid Essential for skin health and antiinflammatory effects. Palmitic acid is ommon in various plant oils with skin-conditioning properties (Moore & Erin M., 2020)

Plant Part Pharmacological Activity Extract References

Aerial part Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity Methanolic Shekhawat and Vijayvergia 2010 [123] Leaves Wound healing Ethanolic Sharma et al. 2010 [122] Cytotoxic Acetone, ethanolic Sangameswaran et al. 2012 [116]

Anxiolytic

Hydro alcoholic Patel et al. 2011 [86,90] Anti-hyperglycaemic Hydroethanolic Ghosh et al. 2009 [39] Antioxidant Ethanolic Roy et al. 2008 [109] , Inganakal and Swamy 2013 [46] Nephro and hepatoprotective Ethanolic Palani et al., 2010 [82] Antimicrobial Acetone, chloroform, ethanolic Mishra and Padhan 2013, Akshatha et al.

2013 [5] Anti-helminthic Methanolic Akhil et al. 2014 [4] Anti-ulcer activity Aqueous Kalaivani and Jegadeesan 2013 [52] Neuropharmacological Methanolic Patel et al. 2011 [86,90] , Inganakal et al.

2012 [47] Nephro and hepato protective activity Ethanolic Palani et al. 2010 [82] Antioxidant activity Ethanolic Palani et al. 2010 [82] Cytotoxic activity Petroleum ether, chloroform, ethanol acetone and water Saluja et al. 2011 [114] Verminosis, gastropathy, Dipsia, bronchitis,consumption, rheumatism and dermatopathy -Vaghasiya and Chanda 2009 [148] Expectorant, chronic bronchitis and cushing's disease -Saluja et al. 2011 [114] Antihyperglycemic activity Hydroethanolic Ghosh et al. 2009 [39] Neuropharmacological Activity Methanolic, ethanolic and petroleum ether Inganakal et al. 2012 [47] Flower Antioxidant property Methanol, hexane, and ethyl Weerasooriya and Yatawara 2003 [153]

Analgesic property

Aqueous and alcoholic Chandra 2001 [23] Analgesic property Methanolic Shekhawat and Vijayvergia 2010 [123] Antiulcer property Ethanolic Shrivastava 2018 [125] Antimicrobial property Aqueous and methanolic Singh and Mani 2014 [131] , Umadevi et al.

2011 [147] , Patel et al. 2012 [88,89] , Wong and Kitts 2006 [154] Hepatoprotective property Methanolic Pinakin et al. 2018 [93] Analgesic Alcoholic Chandra 2001 [23] Hepatoprotective Methanolic Patel and Naik 2010 [85] Anti-ulcer Ethanolic Kalaivani and Jegadeesan 2013 [52]

Analgesic activity

Aqueous and alcoholic Chandra 2001 [23] Hepatoprotective activity Methanolic activity Umadevi et al. 2011 [147] Cytotoxic Activity Methanolic Indu and Annika 2014 [45] Hepatoprotective activity Methanolic Umadevi et al. 2011 [147] , Patel et al. 2012 [88, 89] , Mishra and Padhan 2013 [76] , Sinha et al. 2017 [138] Antihelmenthic activity Methanolic and ethanolic Katiyar et al. 2011, Yadav et al. 2012 [155,157] , Sinha et al. 2017 [53,138] Skin diseases Juice Prashanth et al. 2010 [97] Tonic, analgesic and diuretic -Saluja et al. 2011 [114] Cure cough Roasted flowers Palani et al. 2010 [82] Anti-ulcer Property Alcoholic extract Kalaivani and Jegadeesan 2013 [52] Fruits Asthma and phthisis Roasted fruits Palani et al. 2010 [82] Seed Anti-inflammatory Ethanol extract (10 mg/kg), in vitro Gaikwad et al. 2009 [35] Anti-fertility Crude (10 mg/kg), in vitro Ram et al. 2011 [100] , Gopalkrishnan and Shimpi 2011 [, 40] Anticancer Ethanol and methanol extract (10 µg/kg) using HeLa cell lines model Mishra and Padhan 2013 [76] , Akshatha et al. 2013 [5] Antioxidant Methanolic extract and Butter (in vitro, DPPH model) Sunita and Sarojini 2013 [140] , Ramadin et al. 2006 Alleviate pain Butter (32 mg/kg), in vitro Gaikwad et al. 2009 [35] Anti inflammatory Ethanol extract and saponin mixture Gaikwad et al. 2009 [35] Effective to alleviate pain Oil Prashanth et al. 2010 [97] Seeds cake Anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, and hypoglycaemic activity Ethanolic& crude alkaloid extract Seshagiri and Gaikwad 2007 [119] Bark [25] Anti-ulcer Ethanolic Roy et al. 2008 [109] Anti-diabetic Ethanolic, Methanolic Dahake et al. 2010 [27] , Prashanth et al. 2010 [97] Wound healing Ethanolic Sharma et al. 2010 [122] Hepatoprotective Methanolic Roy et al. 2015 [110] , Odili et al. 2010 [, 80] Antioxidant Alcoholic Agrawal et al. 2011 [2] Anti-inflammatory Ethanolic Agrawal et al. 2012 [3] Antimicrobial Acetone, chloroform, ethanolic Mishra and Pradhan 2013 [76] , Kirtikar and Basu 2001 [, 59] Antidiabetic activity Methanol, water, & petroleum ether Kumar et al. 2011 [61] Antihyperglycemic and antioxidant Ethanolic Prashanth et al. 2010 [97] Antibacterial activity Aqueous, ethanol, methanol and acetone Tambekar and Khante 2010 [142] Antioxidant activity 70% ethanolic Odili et al. 2010 [80] Rheumatism, bleeding and spongy gums Decoction Tambekar and Khante 2010 [142] Rheumatism, ulcer and tonsillitis -Prashanth et al. 2010 [97] Itch, swelling, fractures and snake-bite poisoning -Kumar et al. 2011 [61] Antiepileptic Activity Methanolic Patel et al. 2011 [86,90] Leaves and bark Wound healing activity Ethanolic Sharma et al. 2010 [122] Antimicrobial activity Hexane, ethanol chloroform, acetone and water Khond et al. 2009 [57] Astringent, Stimulant, Emollient, Demulcent, Rheumatism, Piles and Nutritive.

-Khond et al. 2009 [57] Antidiabetic Activity Methanolic Ganapaty et al. 2013 [36] Flower and bark Anthelmintic Activity Ethanolic and methanolic Katiyar et al. 2011 [53] Leaves, bark, flowers and fruits Immunological Property ethanolic Shrivastava et al. 2014 [126] , Purohit et al. 2012 [99]

Traditional medicinal uses

The previous literature and preliminary surveys carried out by authors revealed the prevalent traditional use of Madhuca. Different plant parts are being used with significant medicinal properties, of which, Mahua flowers (Figure 2) and seeds are the most prominent. The details of various plant parts of Madhuca longifolia used in traditional medication systems are given below in Table 2. Madhuca longifolia leaves act as expectorant and are being used in treatment for chronic bronchitis and Cushing's disease (Prajapati et al. 2003) [94,95] . Mahua leaves have long been used in verminosis, gastropathy, dipsia, bronchitis, dermatopathy, rheumatism, cephalgia and hemorrhoids. (Vaghasiya and Chanda 2009) [148] . [94,95] Aphrodisiac, astringent, demulcent, analgesic treatment of helminths, acute and chronic tonsillitis, pharyngitis bronchitis and analgesic, to arthritis pain relief when used with roasted maize grain)

Chandra 2001 [23] Anthelmintic, demulcent, laxative, stimulant, fomentation with dried ones produces relief in orchitis Chatterjee and Pakrashi 2000 [24] Increases lactation Mishra and Padhan 2013 [76] Roasted Cough and bronchitis Palani et al. 2010 [82] Cure piles when flowers fried in ghee Sinha et al. 2017 [138] Powder Diarrhoea and colitis Sinha et al. 2017 [138] Decoction Expectorant, beneficial in impotence due to general debility when administered with milk Acharya and Shrivastava 2008 [1] Burning sensation Deep et al. 2016 [29] Juice Anti-ageing The wealth of India 2010 [144] Tonic Amia and Ekka 2014 [6] Itching Sinha et al. 2017 [138] Eye diseases Amia and Ekka 2014 [6] Raktapitta (arrest bleeding), headache Sinha et al. 2017 [138] Boosting the quantity of seminal fluids Soni and Dey 2013 [139] Bark Raw bark Rheumatism, chronic bronchitis and diabetes Prajapati et al. 2003 [94,95] Itch, swelling, fractures Seshagiri and Gaikwad 2007 [119] Chronic tonsillitis, leprosy and fever Kirtikar and Basu 2001 [59] Blood purifier Shrivastava et al. 2014 [126] decoction Astringent, emollient, hypoglycemic and tonic Chatterjee and Pakrashi 2000 [24] Rheumatism, bleeding and spongy gums Tambekar and Khante 2010 [142] Treatment of snakebite as antidote Ramar et al. 2008 [104] powder Scabies Prajapati et al. 2003 [94,95] Hydrocoele and skin disease Ayyanar and Ignacimuttu 2005 [10] Leaves Paste/ decoction Expectorant, chronic bronchitis, cushing's disease Prajapati et al. 2003 [94,95] Verminosis, gastropathy, dipsia, bronchitis, consumption, dermatopathy, rheumatism, cephalgia and hemorrhoids

Vaghasiya and Chanda 2009 [148] Demulcent, dermatopathy, dipsia, emollient, gastropathy, hemorrhoids, rheumatism, stimulant, verminosis and wound healing Verma et al. 2014 [151] Fruits Raw Astringent, lotion in chronic ulcer, in acute and chronic tonsillitis and pharyngitis

Seshagiri and Gaikwad 2007 [119]

Roasted

Asthma and phthisis Palani et al., 2010 [82] Seeds Raw Laxative in habitual constipation and piles, gummy juice applied in rheumatism and skin affection, oil used in skin disease Chatterjee and Pakrashi 2000 [24] Fats Skin disease, rheumatism, headache, laxative, piles and sometimes as galactogogue Seshagiri and Gaikwad 2007 [119]

Oil

Alleviate pain Prashanth et al. 2010 [97] Root Antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, diarrhoea and chronic fluxes, phthisis and scrofula Chatterjee and Pakrashi 2000 [24] 6. Ethnobotanical significance Madhuca longifolia flowers occupy an important position in the lives of tribal communities in many parts of India (Das et al. 2010) [28] . In majority of Indian states, flowers are consumed either raw or cooked/fried, however, the most essential edible component is the succulent corolla, which is delicious as well as nutritious. Flowers are collected early morning, sun-dried, and then consumed as a source of sustenance hroughout the life time. A single well-developed tree can produce to 500-600 kg of blooms. During the rainy season and famine period dried flowers are utilized as food. Dried flowers turn out to be a significance source nutrition.

A tiny plantlet of Mahua with three leaves is called as 'Kuwar Munda' and is utilized during marriage ceremonies in the Gond tribe (https://milaap.org/stories -the-tree-ofelixir). The white, soft, tasteless drop of resin is commonly observed on flowers before they open. A large proportion of Madhuca longifolia flower harvest goes in the preparation of distilled liquors. The freshly prepared liquor has a strong, smoky odor, which disappears on ageing (Verma et al.

2014) [151] . Another local brand of liquor called "Mahua daru", a type of country Whiskey by Bastar tribe popular in central India is prepared by fermentation of Madhuca flowers (The Wealth of India 2010) [144] . Fresh as well as waste flowers (produced during fermentation operations), are used as animal feed without compromising milk output or quality. Spent flowers are said to promote cow health and increase milk output (Gupta et al. 2012, Sinha et al. 2017) [43, 138] .

The fruit of Madhuca longifolia tree are consumed in both ripe and unripe forms. Interestingly the species has two fruits in two different seasons. The seed oil extracted from the species is also used for several purposes. The Mahua drink made by ripe fruits is considered as a cultural heritage for the Santhals and consumed by forest dwellers during festivities (Bisht et al. 2018) [20] . Mahua seeds contain around 40% light yellow semi-solid fat, which is known as Mahua butter or Mowrah butter and is used to supplement cocoa butter. Unfortunately, it is also used as an adulterant in ghee. It is one of the most frequent sources of natural hard fat (Bringi 1987) [21] . The seed oil content of the seed ranges from 33 to 43% (of kernel's weight). Mahua oil is by far the most significant tree seed oil in the levels of India. Fresh Mahua oil from well maintained seeds is yellow in colour and has a mild flavor which is utilized as cooking oil (Mishra and Padhan 2013) [76] . Tree stem yields an inferior gum that is used medicinally (why given ?? mark). It is also mentioned in the traditional medicine that Mahua tree bark is used to cure the fracture of bone (Pinakin et al. 2018) [93] . Powdered Mahua (Madhuca latifolia) cake was dosed in the test aquaria causing variable fish kills. At 80 mg/L 60-90% of fish were killed while all were killed at 100 mg/L presumably due to haemolysis from a bitter saponin. Toxicity dissipated with time, potentially useful for clearing ponds for aquaculture.

As timber the hard, strong, dense and reddish wood of Madhuca longifolia come in use mainly for manufacturing household utilities like door and window (Orwa et al. 2009) [81] . Tree leaves are used in cattle feed. Locals also make biodegradable plates and cups from leaves, and it is common to use them during festive and religious occasion (Sinha et al. 2017) [138] . The ash of dried leaf with the oil of its fruits is used to treat a variety of skin disorders (Khare et al. 2017) [55] . The important traditional uses of different plant parts of Mahua are described in Table 3.

Uses Remarks References

As a sweetener Flower used as a sweetener in many dishes like halwa, meethi puri and barfi.

Patel 2008 [84] , Pinakin et al.

2018 [93] Substitute for staple grains Sundried flowers are boiled with seeds of tamarind and Sal and stored. Amia and Ekka 2014 [6] Mahua laddoo

Cleaned Mahua flower is boiled and grinded to make pulp. The juice is removed from the pulp by straining it with a cloth. The juice removed from the pulp is concentrated and when the desired consistency is reached theMahua pulp is mixed with it and stirred hot for some time and laddoo (small ball) is made and stored in airtight earthen containers and consumed for more than a year.

Pinakin et al.

2018 [93] Lata Steam is passed over dry flowers followed by crushed and made into a preparation like jaggery known as 'Lata'.

Sikarwar 2002 [129] Sara Lata

Dry flowers are soaked into water and then pressed to obtain the juice The juice is boiled till it become thicker. Remaining pressed flowers are allowed to dry again and then steam is passed over dry flowers, added to the above to the above juice and Laddoo (small balls) are prepared (called 'Sara Lata'). They are consumed for several months.

Rasa Kutka

Washed dry flowers are placed into earthen pots, which are kept on fire. The flowers are continuously stirred with wooden stick, during which converted into beak-like shape. After cooling, these are wrapped into Sal (Shorea robusta) leaves and placed in basket (known as 'Rasa Kutka') and can be consumed for several months.

Khurli Mahua

Dry flowers are roasted and wrapped in leaf packets called as 'Khurli Mahua'. They can also be consumed for several months.

Laranga Lata

Khurli Mahua is again roasted and mixed with roasted sesame seeds and crushed properly. This mixture is known as 'Laranga Lata'. Sometime, roasted corns are also be used instead of sesame seeds.

Bakhar or Ranu

About 10 kg of Mahua flowers are mixed with 300 g Bakhara (traditional additives prepared from medicinal plants and cereals) and 32 litres of water. Fermentation is carried out in earthen pots for 4-7 days and then after fermented Mahua flower mass is distilled in a metallic container by keeping another earthen pot on the top of the first container reversely. The lower metallic container containing fermented Mahua flower mass is heated. The distillate is diluted to approximately 10-15% alcohol (ethanol) and consumed as "Country liquor"

2016 [16] Mahua cake Mahua flowers and rice (1:2 ratio) are separately soaked in water for 1 hour Then, both are mixed and grinded. The paste is then covered with the Sal leaves from both sides and burned with fire to make cake.

Behera et al.

After soaking Mahua flower overnight, it is grinded with 2:1 of flower to water. Then it is boiled and when the slurry becomes gummy, raw rice powder is mixed with it. Some other ingredients like sesame seeds and salt are also added. After required consistency is reached, it is taken out from the heating source and pan cakes (Pithas) of 3 to 4 cm diameter and 0.5 cm thickness are made manually and it is deep fried in oil.

After the Pithas are cooled they are packed in airtight polyethylene pouches which can be stored for 3-6 months.

Bakhara et al. 2016 [11] Preparation of "Mahua daaru"

Produced from dried Mahua flowers which contain 20-40 (%) alcohol content. An average yield of 90 gallons of 95% alcohol is reported from one ton of dried flowers (The Wealth of India, 1962) [143] Kumari et al.

2016 [63] "Mahuli" preparation Traditionally made by fermented flowers which contains 20-40 (%) alcohol content Kumari et al. 2016 [63] , Behera et al.

2016 [16] 7. Nutrition values Almost all parts of Mahua tree are used as food and in food substances in several countries, especially the Indian subcontinent. During the lean season of agriculture (March-May), the tree produces edible flowers and fruits (Mishra and Poonia 2019) [72] . A collection of Mahua flowers and fruits act as one of the most important sources of employment for poor people in India owing to their nutritious values. Kureel et al. (2009) [64] recorded moisture (19.8%), protein (6.37%), fat (0.5%), reducing sugar (50.62%), total inverts (54.24%), cane sugar (3.43%), total sugar (54.06%), ash (4.36%), Ca (8.0%) and P (2.0%) in M. longifolia flowers. Flowers contain 4-7% protein and essential minerals like Ca, K, P, Mg, Cu and Fe in adequate amount. Amino acid content includes lysine, arginine, aspartate, glutamate, threonine, valine, tryptophan, isoleucine, leucine and proline (Mishra and Usha 2019) [73] . Mahua flowers contain adequate amount of vitamin A & C (Hoffman and Leaders 1996) [44] . It is also a rich source of anthocyanins, betains, salts of malic and succinic acid (Bisht et al. 2018) [20] . Purohit et al. (2012) [99] reported that air dried Mahua flower contains invert sugar (52.6%), cane sugar (2.2%), albuminoids (2.2%) and other substance. Ascorbic acid, gallic acid, quercetin and myrcetin were the phenolic compounds identified and quantified in Mahua flower and fruit extracts. Sugar profiling of Mahua flowers and fruits confirmed the presence of inositol, sorbitol, mannitol, dextrose, fructose, sucrose, raffinose and maltose (Singh et al. 2020) [135] . Madhuca longifolia fruit is valued for its seed which contain high quantity of lipids (ca. 50-61%), commercially known as Mahua or mowrah butter, and it has many edible, medicinal and non-food applications (Ramadan et al. 2006) [101, 103] . Mahua seed contains 50-60% oil, 16.9% protein, 3.2% fiber, 22% carbohydrates, 3.4% ash, 2.5% saponins and 0.5% tannins (Singh and Singh 1991) [130] . Madhuca longifolia seeds contain about 50-60% total lipids, 22% carbohydrates, 16.9% protein, 3.2% fiber, 3.4% ash, 2.5% saponins, and 0.5% tannins. The de-oiled seed cake contains about 42.8% carbohydrates, 30% protein, 9.8% saponins, 6% ash, 8.6% fiber, 1% lipids, and 1% tannins (Ramadan et al. 2006) [101,103] . Seeds contain arachidic, linolelic, oleic, myrisic, palmitic and stearic acids, α-alanine, aspartic acid, cystine, glycine, isoleucine and leucine, lysine, methionine, proline, serine, threonine, myricetin, quercetin, Mi-saponin A & B (Chatterjee and Pakrashi 2000) [24] . Mahua seeds containing 20 to 50% fatty oil which used as manufacture of soap and Mahua oil seed cake as manure (Shivakumar et al. 2011) [124] . Among lipids present in the seeds, the level of neutral lipids was the highest (ca. 95.4%), followed by glycolipids (0.51%) and phospholipids (0.13%), respectively (Ramadan et al. 2006) [101,103] . The de-oiled seed cake contains 30% protein, 1% oil, 8.6% fiber, 42.8% carbohydrates, 6% ash, 9.8% saponins, and 1% tannins (Singh and Singh 1991) [130] .

Value added products

About 10 kg of Mahua flower yields 9 kg of pulp for product preparation after removal of stamen, sand and dust (Bakhara et al. 2016) [11] . The products available in the market are described in Table 5 and presented in Figure 4. [93] . Firstly, they dried the flower that they have harvested and carefully cleaning it, then frying it in "Desi Ghee" or butter with a pinch of sugar (since sugar is already present in Mahua flower) to make Mahua's sweet and juicy meal. Eating fried Mahua in ghee is said to enhance milk production in pregnant and nursing mothers (Jha et al. 2013, Kumar et al. 2017) [51,62] . Fresh flowers were mashed into puree and processed into sauce after the stamens were carefully removed (Patel 2008) [84] . 2. Jam, Jelly, Marmalade and Pickle: Mahua jam is made by using mature (full grown) but unripe fruits with the addition of citric acid (Reuther et al. 1967).

The pulp is also made into marmalade or syrup, both of which are edible. To change the astringent flavour, jelly can be produced from the pulp of fresh flowers alone or in combination with guava. The pulp is pickled as well (The Wealth of India 1962) [143] . To make jelly, wash the flowers and soak them in water overnight. After the flowers have swollen, take them from the water and place them in a new vessel above the fire to be cooked and then mashed with a fruit masher. Then juice and sugar are added until a jelly is formed (Kumar et al. 2017, Pinakin et al. 2018) [62,93] . Using the hedonic test, the produced goods were evaluated for colour, flavour, taste, texture, and overall acceptability. All of the Mahua goods created were judged to be accepted based on the results of hedonic test (Patel 2008) [84] . [70] . Because the fruit is named "Dori," this oil is also known as "Dori oil". This oil has several medical, nonmedicinal, nutraceutical, economic, and other applications. During the Indian festival of Diwali, it is said that this oil is as important as cow ghee (Deep et al. 2016) [29] .

Formulations available in the market (BRAND NAMES):

Herbal hand wash made from the bark of the Mahua tree is nontoxic, effective, and safer to use (Anonymous 2001) [7] . The antibacterial activity of this herbal hand wash was evaluated using the disc diffusion technique, and the results were compared to a commercially available hand wash. Extracts of bark, ginger extract, M. indica, and lemon grass extract are used in the herbal hand wash's composition. About 4 ml suspended water extract (1.25g/4 ml w/v) was mixed with 3 g sodium lauryl sulphate to make the herbal hand wash. Some other important commercial products made by this plant are mentioned as: i) Madhukasava: It is an ayurvedic liquid formulation used to treat various diseases including bleeding, emaciation, skin diseases, and tiredness. ii) Abhayarishta: It is an ayurvedic liquid formulation used to cure diseases and piles. iii) Chandanasava: It is an ayurvedic liquid formulation used to treat skin irritation, burning bleeding, and spermatorrhoea. iv) Nyagrodhadichurna: It is an ayurvedic powdered formulation used to treat diabetes and urinary problems.

v) Lakshmanarishta: It is an ayurvedic liquid formulation used to treat a variety of gynaecological problems such as menorrhagia, heavy, and irregular periods. vi) Panchasaarapanaka: It is a cold drink that is used to cure burning micturition, body burning sensations, and thirst. vii) Stanyajananarasayana: It is an ayurvedic composition that is used for post-natal care since it increases milk production and gives the nursing mother strength.

Bakery and Confectionary:

The Mahua concentrate was used as a liquid sweetener in candy, biscuits, and cake recipes (Sinha et al., 2017) [138] .

Sugar Syrup:

There are several reports on making sugar syrup from dry Mahua flowers, which is used in the fermentation processes because of its sweetness (Shriwastaea et al. 1970) [127] . Before being concentrated to the appropriate concentration, the water extract of dried flower is decolorized with various decolorizing agents such as slacked lime and activated charcoal at a concentration of 3.5-5.0% (Patel and Naik 2010) [85] . The syrup produced from the Mahua flower is used for a variety of purposes, including the production of chocolate and as a sweetening agent (Anonymous 2006, The wealth of India 2010) [8,144] .

Fermented products:

The Mahua flower is high in sugar content, and after drying the flowers in the shade, they become more concentrated. This concentrated dried flower is then utilized as a source of sugar in the fermentation process to make alcoholic beverages. Various products have been made from dry Mahua flowers including alcohol, brandy, wine, acetone, ethanol, lactic acid and other fermented products (Fowler et al. 1920 [33,155,157,51] . This is one of the most often used way and source of income for tribal people in India.

Apis dorsata

Bee (Hymenoptera) Major cross-pollinators, long-distance forager, higher flower constancy Mishra & Sharma (2013) [75] 2.

Apis mellifera

Bee (Hymenoptera) Most abundant visitor, efficient pollen transfer Partap (2011) [91] 3.

Cynopterus sphinx Bat (Chiroptera) Nocturnal nectar feeder, pollen transfer via face and fur Srinivasulu (2010)

4.

Xylocopa pubescens Bee (Hymenoptera) Buzz-pollinator(sonication), pollen grooming behaviour, nectar robber on some morphs Venkataramaiah et al., 2019 [152] 5.

Macaca mulatta Primate (Mammalia)

Opportunistic floral visitor, documented in Mahua flower Pradhan et al.,2016 [96] 6.

Psittacula krameri

Insects (Hymenoptera)

Secretion may inhibit pollen viability, mainly nectar robbers Galen (1983) [34] 10.

Pteropus giganteus

Bat (Chiroptera) Long-distance pollen vector, critical for genetic diversity in forest population

Singaravelan & Marimuthu (2004) [137] 9.1: Bat Pollinators of Madhuca longifolia Madhuca longifolia is primarily pollinated by nocturnal bats, which are attracted to its strongly scented, nectar-rich flowers that bloom at night. Fruit bats, especially species like Pteropus gigantues, play a significant role in transferring pollen while feeding on the nectar. Their long snouts and feeding behavior facilitate effective crosspollination over large distances. Their mutualism interaction enhances genetic diversity and reproductive success in the species.

Role of fruit bats (e.g., Pteropus spp.) Fruit bats, particularly pteropodid species, serve as the primary nocturnal pollinators of Madhuca longifolia, a role that was long misunderstood. Early observations incorrectly assumed that damaged Mahua flowers by consuming the corollas.Both Cynopterus sphinx and Pteropus giganteus consumed fleshy corollas with attached stamens while leaving the gynoecium intact, and bagging experiments demonstrated that fruit set in bat-visited flowers was significantly higher than in self-pollinators flowers. The floral traits of M.longifoliapale colur, nocturnal anthesis, abundant nectar, and strong fermented scent are classic adaptations to attract thes chiropterophilous visitors (Natha et al., 2009) [78] .

Nocturnal foraging behavior and long-distance pollen transfer

The two principal bat pollinators of M.longifolia exhibit distinct foraging strategies that are partitioned both spatially and temporally across the canopy. Cynopterus sphinx feeds at lower heights with peak foraging activity around 19:30h, detaching individual corollas and carrying them to nearby feeding roosts, while Pteropus giganteus feeds in situ at the canopy top, crawling along branches with peak activity around 20:30 h. This temporal segregation reduces interspecific competition and ensures continuous floral visitation throughout the night.Pteropus giganteus lands on the tree and crawls along branches using it forearms and legs to reach flowers and pull them close to its mouth for lapping nectar, during which pollen adheres extensively to the fur of the face and chest and is transferred to the next flower visited. Given the wide nightly foraging range of flying foxes spanning several kilometers these bats function as long distance pollen vectors in ways that no other pollinator guild of M.longifolia can match (Raghuram et al., 2011) [106] .

Importance in maintaining genetic diversity and fruit set

The contribution of bat pollinators to the reproductive success and genetic health of M.longifolia populations is profound, particularly in fragmented forest landscapes. In M.longifolia, both pollinations and seed dispersal are predominantly performed by pteropodid bats, with sympatric species Cynopterus sphinx,Rousettus leschenaultti, and Pteropus giganteus exhibiting species spatio-temporal variations in foraging that collectively ensures comprehensive reproductive services. Critically, the scale of pollen and seed movement differs markedly among species. Smaller bats dispersed seeds over distances of less than 100m, while large flying foxes disperse seeds as far as seven kilometers from the parent tree, enabling gene flow across highly fragmented landscapes where tree populations may otherwise become reproductively isolated. Small pteropodid bats aid short distance pollination while large pteropodid bats facilitate long-distance pollination, meaning the loss of even one size class from the bat community could significantly reduce both fruit set and genetic connectivity of M.longifolia across its range. [140] . Mahua flowers can be added to the household and cattle waste to prepare organic manure. Fermentation waste may also be utilized as bio-fertilizer, which is both environmentally friendly and less expensive than traditional fertilizers (Patel and Naik 2010) [85] . After the fermentation process for producing alcohol, the residual pulp and other components is mixed with the regular soil which has excellent biofertilizer properties (Jha et al. 2013, Kumar et al. 2017 [62] , Pinakin et al. 2018) [51,93] . In addition to its usefulness as a fertilizer due to its high saponin content, seed cake aids in the reduction of root-knot nematodes and fungal diseases due to high saponin content (Gupta 2013, Orwa et al. 2009) [42, 81] . The leaves of Mahua are consumed by the moth Antheraea paphia, which generates tussar silk in India (Vantomme 2002) [149] . Mahua flowers produce nectar that is very valuable to honey bees in periods of scarcity (Singh et al. 2008) [132] . Mahua seed oil is used to make soaps and candles and is also used as a seed preservative against house pests (Orwa et al. 2009) [81] . Oil produced in smallholder farms is of low quality and is mainly used as a ghee substitute or adulterant (Fern 2014) [31] . Mahua leaves, flowers and fruits are lopped to feed goats and sheep (Singh et al. 2008) [132] . The Mahua oil cake is used for ruminants in areas where Mahua oil production is important, but is generally considered detrimental to livestock performance due to its high saponin content (Singhal et al. 1986) [136] . Spent flowers, the by-product of alcohol production, are also occasionally fed to livestock (Reddy et al. 1966) [108] . Mahua tree has a thick, spreading root system that binds the soil together. Its large superficial root system ties the soil and helps to keep it from eroding.

Despite the fact that it is not a legume, Mahua produces mycorrhizal connections capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and root colonization (https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/treedb/AFTPDFS/Madh uca_latifolia.PDF). In India, Mahua is grown on wasteland with hard lateritic soils used to conserve degraded landscape (Mishra and Pradhan 2013) [76] . 9.2 Biodiesel production: Biodiesel is often made from oils such as soybean, rapeseed, sunflower, safflower and tree borne oil seed plants such as castor, jatropha and Pongamia all over the world (Ghadge and Rahman 2005) [38] . Various alternative fuels have been explored with the objective of replacing traditional petroleum sources since the 1970s oil price spike. The early focus was mostly on fuel supply security, but more recently, attention has shifted to the utilization of renewable fuels to minimize CO 2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion sources (Puhan et al. 2005) [98] . Mahua biodiesel gives equally good performance and lower emissions which make it a good alternative fuel to operate diesel locomotives as well as irrigation pumps without any engine modification (Manjunath et al. 2015) [70] . In India, potential Mahua oil production could be up to 60 million t/year (CJP 2007) [26] .

Employment generation:

After going through all of Mahua's medical and non-medicinal applications, we can clearly infer that this plant is being used by forest dwellers and tribal people, presenting them with a lucrative opportunity. They readily gather all parts of the Mahua tree, including flowers, fruits, seeds, and leaves, and sell them to local markets (Patel and Naik 2010) [85] . They receive money in exchange. The person who collects Mahua as 'Tendu Patta' (leaf of Diospyros melanoxylon), they are given some sort of incentive by the Indian government (Jain et al. 2006) [48] . Besides, rural people and tribals whose daily life is totally depend on the collection and sell of different plant parts of Mahua (Table 6). The recorded average annual yield of flowers and seeds per tree of Mahua is 200-250 kg and 40-50 kg, respectively (Kumar et al. 2017) [62] Table 8: Different Mahua products sold by tribes in local/regional market (Kumar et al. 2017) [62] Products

Conclusions

Comprehensive review of existing literature revealed that Mahua (Madhuca longifolia) is a very nutritious tree with huge traditional and ethnobotanical significance. There has been a lot of study done on the flower, fruit, and seed of Mahua to emphasize its therapeutic benefits and utilization of it by forest dwellers and tribal communities in food and non-food applications, however there has been very little information is available on experimental and clinical research to explore its pharmacological and nutritive values.

Only Mahua flower is commonly utilized commercially in the production of liquor rather than in the manufacture of food or medicine. Traditionally Mahua is used as substitute for staple grains, natural sweetener, Mahua laddoo, Lata, Sara Lata, Rasa Kutka, Khurli Mahua, Laranga Lata, Bakhar or Ranu, Mahua cake, Mahua Pitha, Preparation of "Mahua daaru", "Mahuli" preparation by the forest communities. Different marketable value added food products like dried flower, candied flower, glazed flower, Mahua bar, Readyto-Serve beverages (RTS), squash, jam, laddu and cake were prepared and the products were well appreciated by the consumers.

Recommendations and Future Perspectives

Basically, Mahua is utilized by forest dwellers and tribal communities are using at extensive level till date as its juicy flower and seeds have high nutritive values. So the moment has come to divert Mahua flowers for commercial use in many types of food items, and fruit and the seed will also be utilized in the manufacture of medications. This endeavor has the potential to improve the tribal employment and sustainable livelihood. Scientific methods of managing and long-term management of Mahua resources are critical for greater livelihood options in local communities. Capacity development efforts are already underway at various levels to advance their existing knowledge and skills. However, more extensive trainings at the grass roots level are required to raise awareness about systematic collecting, grading, primary processing, and marketing of Mahua products. Indian government supported initiatives such as Van Dhan Vikas Kriyakram and Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India are helpful in generating additional revenue by teaching tribal on the issues of value addition to major NWFPs such as Mahua. The training delivery component has been revamped, with an emphasis on promoting tribal entrepreneurship by using their collective power, and a pilot project. Value-added Mahua goods such as sweet meals, syrup, jams, nutrabeverage, etc may help communities earn more and better revenue than they do now. To control the harm to the Mahua trees and their environment, stringent laws and conservation measures are required. To conserve the high yielding genotypes, Mahua resources must be protected from ground burning and collected completely. Furthermore, high yielding genotypes might be incorporated in the agroforestry module to produce high-quality Mahua flowers/seeds on a large scale.

Looking at the vast prospects and potential of Mahua for different uses, it must be incorporated into afforestation and social forestry programmes on large scale, particularly in unproductive and wasteland areas. This will aid in complete financial support of impoverished and landless households. Apart from being used as food, feed and fodder, Mahua flowers are an excellent source of natural sugars and different phyto-chemicals that contribute to various characteristics such as antibacterial, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antihyperglycemic, analgesic actions, etc. An improvement in the transportation of flowers from tree to processing units must be improved in order to retain floral quality, delay degradation, and provide them as a viable raw material for food production units.

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