Present status and future prospects of agricultural farm mechanization in Mandya, Karnataka: A review

Introduction

Agriculture remains the backbone of the Indian economy, employing approximately 46% of the country's workforce and contributing around 17-18% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, 2023) [7] . Among India's southern states, Karnataka occupies a prominent position in agricultural production, with diverse agro-climatic zones supporting a wide array of crops. Within Karnataka, Mandya district holds a distinctive identity as one of the most productive and irrigated agricultural regions, contributing significantly to the state's paddy and sugarcane output. Mandya district, situated in the southern dry zone of Karnataka, is bounded by the Cauvery river system and its tributaries the Hemavathi and Shimsha rivers. The district covers a geographical area of approximately 4,961 km 2 and encompasses seven taluks: Mandya, Maddur, Malavalli, Nagamangala, Pandavapura, Krishnarajapete (K.R. Pete) and Srirangapatna. The district's agriculture is primarily supported by the Krishnarajasagara (KRS) reservoir and the Hemavathy Reservoir Project, which together irrigate a substantial portion of the net sown area. Approximately 48% of the district's cultivated area is irrigated, making Mandya one of the most irrigation-dependent districts in Karnataka (ICAR-KVK Mandya, 2023) [3] . The principal crops cultivated in Mandya include paddy (Oryza sativa), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), ragi (finger millet) and various vegetable crops. During the 2024-25 kharif season, paddy was sown on 57,084 hectares, sugarcane on 40,361 hectares and ragi on 54,018 hectares (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Karnataka, 2025) [2] . The district is home to numerous sugar factories, making sugarcane a critical cash crop for tens of thousands of farm households. Despite its agricultural richness, Mandya's farming sector confronts significant challenges in transitioning from traditional, labour-intensive methods to mechanized practices. Agricultural labour scarcity driven by rural-to-urban migration, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) employment opportunities and rising wage rates has created an urgent need for farm mechanization. The cost of hired labour for transplanting, weeding and harvesting has increased by more than 60% over the past decade, significantly raising the cost of cultivation and reducing farmers' net returns (Nagesh et al., 2022) [8] . Farm mechanization refers to the process of using machinery and technology to perform farm operations that were previously done by hand or with animal traction. It encompasses a wide spectrum from simple hand tools and improved implements to tractors, combine harvesters and intelligent precision agriculture systems. The mechanization of agriculture is not only associated with labour substitution but also with timely farm operations, reduced post-harvest losses, improved resource-use efficiency and enhanced crop productivity (Nagaraja et al., 2025) [28] . Nationally, India's farm power availability has risen from 0.30 kW/ha in 1960-61 to approximately 3.126 kW/ha in 2024, with a government target of reaching 4.0 kW/ha by 2030 (Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, 2024) [1] . States like Punjab and Haryana lead with over 6.0 kW/ha, whereas regions with predominantly small and marginal land holdings like Mandya remain well below the national average. This review paper aims to: 1. Present a comprehensive account of the current status of farm mechanization in Mandya district across key crops and farm operations.

Agricultural profile of Mandya district 2.1 Agro-Climatic and Soil Characteristics

Mandya district falls under the Southern Dry Zone (Zone-6) of Karnataka's agro-climatic classification. The climate is semi-arid to sub-humid, with an average annual rainfall of approximately 726 mm, primarily received during the south-west monsoon (June-October). The district experiences mild winters and hot summers. Soils range from red sandy loams in the upland areas to deep black cotton soils and alluvial loams in the irrigated command areas. The fertile alluvial deposits along the Cauvery basin provide ideal conditions for paddy and sugarcane cultivation.

The terrain is largely flat to gently undulating, which is broadly favourable for the deployment of farm machinery, particularly tractors and combine harvesters. However, small and irregular field sizes a consequence of fragmented land holdings remain a critical limiting factor for mechanical operations.

Land Use and Landholding Pattern

The net sown area of Mandya district is approximately 2.61 lakh hectares, of which 1.25 lakh hectares (about 48%) is under assured irrigation (Mandya District Gazetteer, 2022) [6] . The average landholding size in the district is 1.18 hectares, which is below the national average of 1.08 hectares. An estimated 68% of farm households in Mandya are classified as small and marginal farmers (owning less than 2 hectares), a demographic that faces the steepest barriers to mechanization due to capital constraints and limited economies of scale.

Major Crops and Cropping Systems

Mandya's irrigated command area supports double and triple cropping systems. Key crops and their roles are as follows: a) Paddy (Oryza sativa): The primary food crop, cultivated across Mandya, Pandavapura and Srirangapatna taluks during both kharif and rabi seasons. Average productivity is around 5.2 tonnes/ha in irrigated conditions. b) Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum): The signature cash crop, covering over 40,000 hectares. The crop cycle typically spans 10-14 months. The district hosts seven cooperative and private sugar factories with a combined crushing capacity exceeding 30,000 TCD (tonnes crushed per day). However, despite an increase in area (7.94%) and production (7.01%) over the decade 2012-13 to 2023-24, productivity has declined marginally by 0.74%, partly due to monocropping and soil degradation (Journal of Scientific Research Reports, 2024) [15] . c) Ragi (Finger Millet): An important dry-land crop, widely cultivated in the upland areas of Nagamangala and K.R. Pete taluks. d) Horticultural Crops: Vegetables (tomato, brinjal, beans), flowers (marigold, jasmine) and fruits (banana, coconut) are increasingly gaining prominence, especially in peri-urban farming zones.

Farm Labour Scenario

Agricultural labour availability has been declining sharply in Mandya district, mirroring a pan-Karnataka trend. The daily wage rate for agricultural labourers has risen to Rs. 400-550 per day for men and Rs. 300-450 per day for women (2024-25 estimates), making manual-intensive operations like paddy transplanting, sugarcane harvesting and interculture economically unviable. This labour shortage particularly acute during peak sowing and harvest seasons has emerged as the single most important driver for mechanization adoption in the district.

Present status of farm mechanization in Mandya district 3.1 Overall Mechanization Index

The Mechanization Index (MI) is a composite measure that reflects the proportion of farm operations performed using mechanical power, weighted by the total area under each operation. Studies conducted in Mandya district indicate that the overall mechanization index ranges between 45-55%, with significant variation across crops and operations. A detailed study on sugarcane farms in Mandya reported an overall mechanization index of approximately 50.50% (Journal of ACRI, 2023) [4] . The indices for paddy cultivation are broadly similar, ranging between 47-53% depending on the agroecological zone and land holding size.

Mechanization Status by Farm Operation

Mechanization adoption is highly skewed across the crop calendar. The following subsections present the status for each major farm operation:

Land Preparation

The most mechanized operation in Mandya's farming system. Tractors and power tillers are widely used for ploughing, harrowing and seedbed preparation. Mechanization levels for primary and secondary tillage operations are estimated at 90-98%, making this the most complete domain of mechanization. The district has a relatively high density of tractors (estimated at 18-22 tractors per 1,000 hectares) and power tillers, supported by a robust private hire market. Rotary tillers, disc harrows and cultivators are the commonly used implements.

Sowing and Transplanting

This is the most critically under-mechanized domain. For paddy, despite the wider availability of paddy transplanters (both 4-row and 6-row mat nursery type), the adoption rate is dismally low estimated at less than 15% (Ramachandra et al., 2021) [11] . Most paddy farmers continue to use manual transplanting, which requires 25-35 person-days per hectare and contributes significantly to the labour cost. The poor adoption is attributed to: (i) non-availability of quality mat nurseries; (ii) lack of awareness and training; (iii) high rental cost of transplanters; and (iv) fragmented field conditions unsuitable for machine operation. For sugarcane, mechanical planting using sugarcane planters is even less common, with mechanization levels at approximately 5-10%. Traditional furrow-opening by tractor + manual sett placement remains the dominant method.

Irrigation

Irrigation is highly mechanized, with almost universal adoption of pump sets centrifugal pumps, submersible pumps and diesel pumpsets. The mechanization index for irrigation stands at approximately 95-97%. The district has an estimated 1.1 lakh electric pumpsets energized under the Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation's agricultural feeder network. Microirrigation systems (drip and sprinkler), supported by subsidies under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), are being promoted but adoption remains limited to about 12% of the irrigated area (CADA Mandya, 2023).

Plant Protection (Spraying)

Mechanization of spraying operations using knapsack sprayers (manual and power-operated) is relatively widespread. Batteryoperated and engine-operated knapsack sprayers are increasingly replacing hand duster and manual knapsack models. The mechanization level for spraying is estimated at 55-65%. However, the use of boom sprayers, drone-based spraying and tractor-mounted sprayers remains negligible (less than 5%), primarily confined to progressive large-scale farmers.

Interculture and Weeding

Interculture operations weeding, earthing-up and ridging in sugarcane remain significantly manual. Power weeders (petrol and electric) are available but adoption is limited to approximately 20-30% of the area. The major constraint is that tractor-operated interculture equipment like ridgers and cultivators require row spacing uniformity at planting, which is often not maintained in traditional farming systems. For paddy, manual weeding is still predominant in the initial 30 days of crop growth, though herbicides have partially substituted labour in this operation.

Harvesting and Threshing

Harvesting is the second most labour-intensive operation and remains under-mechanized. For paddy, the combine harvester adoption has been increasing in recent years, with an estimated mechanization level of 35-45% for harvesting combined with threshing. Self-propelled combine harvesters and tractoroperated combine harvesters are deployed on hire through private contractors and CHCs. However, the number of combine harvesters operational in the district is still insufficient studies indicate a shortage of approximately 120-150 units needed to cover the peak harvest period (ResearchGate, 2023) [12] . For sugarcane, mechanical harvesting is nearly absent in Mandya. Sugarcane harvesting is an intensely labour-demanding activity requiring 100-120 person-days per hectare. Mechanized sugarcane harvesters, though available commercially, have not been adopted due to: (i) high procurement cost (Rs. 80-100 lakh); (ii) unsuitability for small, irregular field layouts; (iii) requirement for base cutters and trash management systems; and (iv) reluctance of sugar mills to mandate mechanical harvesting. As a result, the mechanization index for sugarcane harvesting is essentially zero to less than 2%.

Post-Harvest Operations

Post-harvest mechanization encompasses threshing, winnowing, drying, storage and value addition. Paddy threshers are commonly used (mechanization ~70%) and power-operated winnowers are available. However, mechanical drying and scientific storage systems are poorly adopted at the farm level. On-farm storage structures like hermetic storage bags are being promoted but adoption is nascent.

Repair and Maintenance Facilities

The availability and quality of repair and maintenance infrastructure is a critical but often overlooked dimension of farm mechanization. In Mandya district, the repair and maintenance ecosystem for agricultural machinery is largely informal and unevenly distributed. Overall, the repair and maintenance infrastructure in Mandya is adequate for conventional tractorization but critically deficient for servicing advanced and specialized machinery, representing a significant gap that limits the effective utilization of mechanized equipment in the district.

Farm Power Availability

Farm power availability in Mandya is estimated at approximately 2.0-2.5 kW/ha, derived from mechanical sources (tractors, power tillers, engines), electrical sources (pump sets) and human and animal labour contributions. This figure is significantly below the national average of 3.126 kW/ha (2024) and far below the Government of India's target of 4.0 kW/ha by 2030 (DAFE, 2024).

Machinery Inventory and Availability

Based on data from the District Agriculture Office (DAO), Mandya and secondary research studies, the approximate inventory of key farm machinery in the district is as follows:

Role of Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs)

Custom Hiring Centres have emerged as the most promising institutional mechanism to bridge the machinery access gap for small and marginal farmers. They are established under the Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM), the Government of Karnataka operates CHCs under the "Krishi Yantra Dhare" scheme at the hobli level, with support from NGOs, Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), cooperative societies and rural entrepreneurs (Nagaraja et al., 2025) [28] . Strengthening CHCs will require targeted policy and financial support, infrastructure expansion into underserved regions, capacity building of farmers and operators and integration of digital technologies for efficient service delivery. Addressing these issues will be crucial to democratizing access to mechanization, supporting rural entrepreneurship and advancing sustainable agricultural growth in India (Dhila et al., 2025) [27] .

Key features of the CHC model in Mandya:

▪ Financial assistance: up to 40-50% subsidy on machinery procurement for individuals; higher support for FPOs and cooperative societies.

▪ Priority beneficiaries: small, marginal, SC/ST and women farmers. ▪ Machinery portfolio: CHCs typically provide tractors, power tillers, paddy transplanters, combine harvesters, power weeders, sprayers and threshers. ▪ Booking mechanism: increasingly moving to digital platforms for booking, scheduling and payment.

Studies evaluating CHC performance in Mandya have documented significant economic benefits: paddy cultivation cost reductions of 15-20%, timeliness improvements in transplanting and harvesting and enhanced productivity of 8-12% attributable to timely mechanized operations (ResearchGate, 2023 and Sreedevi et al, 2026) [12,26] .

Government Schemes and Policy Framework

Constraints and challenges in farm mechanization 4.1 Small and Fragmented Landholdings

The most pervasive structural challenge to mechanization in Mandya is land fragmentation. With an average holding size of 1.18 hectares and nearly 68% of farmers in the small and marginal category, individual ownership of high-value machinery is economically irrational.

High Capital Investment

The procurement cost of modern farm machinery is beyond the reach of most Mandya farmers. Establish taluk-level machinery repair and maintenance hubs with mobile repair units, trained agricultural mechanics, spare parts banks and digital maintenance scheduling to maximize machine uptime and extend equipment service life.

Conclusion

Mandya district, Karnataka's premier agricultural hub, stands at a critical juncture in its mechanization trajectory. With a mechanization index ranging between 45-55% and farm power availability of approximately 2.0-2.5 kW/ha, the district has progressed significantly beyond purely manual agriculture but has yet to achieve the full-cycle mechanization needed to address the compounding challenges of labour scarcity, rising cultivation costs and climate variability. The present scenario is characterized by a well-mechanized land preparation domain, reasonably mechanized irrigation and threshing operations and critically under-mechanized transplanting and harvesting. The prevalent practice of tractorization must be supplemented by crop-specific mechanization across the full crop calendar. The future of agriculture in Mandya lies in the synergistic integration of conventional mechanization with emerging digital technologies drones, IoT, AI, precision agriculture and solar energy. With Mandya's unique combination of irrigation infrastructure, sugar industry and progressive farming community, the district is well-positioned to become a model for farm mechanization in peninsular India.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgementsThe authors gratefully acknowledge the support of ICAR-AICRP on Farm Implements and Machinery, CIAE, Bhopal, University of Agricultural Sciences, Mandya, ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Mandya, KSDA, Mandya, SKDRDP, Mandya and all the farmers and extension functionaries who provided valuable information for this review.

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