Bioconversion efficiency of black soldier fly on different organic wastes

Introduction

The Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens L.) is a synanthropic, polysaprophagous and cosmopolitan insect belonging to the order Diptera, family Stratiomyidae and subfamily Hermetiinae (Marshall et al., 2015) [15] . According to estimates by the Government of India, nearly 115,000 metric tonnes of municipal solid waste are generated every day, with per capita waste generation ranging from 0.2 to 0.6 kg per day, depending on population size. A recent report by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB, 2021) [6] indicates that biodegradable waste accounts for the largest share of total waste generated, at about 52.32 percent. However, only a small fraction (12.45%) of the collected waste is scientifically processed, whereas the majority is discarded in open dumping sites. Landfilling continues to be the primary method for disposing of organic waste, although it presents significant environmental hazards such as global warming and contamination of soil and water resources (Christensen et al., 2010; Bhada and Hoornweg, 2012) [5,3] . In many Indian cities, particularly those other than metropolitan areas, open dumping remains a common method for the disposal of municipal solid waste, posing serious environmental and public health concerns. The uncontrolled burning and decomposition of such waste result in the release of toxic substances and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. To address these challenges, the adoption of a comprehensive strategy known as Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is essential. ISWM integrates multiple waste management techniques, including incineration, composting, anaerobic digestion, refuse derived fuel production, material recovery facilities and sanitary landfilling, to ensure sustainable and environmentally responsible waste management (Pujara et al., 2019) [24] .

Materials and Methods

Experimental setup

The hatchlings were reared in plastic trays 30 cm (length) × 20 cm (width) × 7 cm (height) using different substrates for each treatment. Treatments were replicated seven times in CRD. In each tray, 2000 five to eight day old maggots were released using a camel brush. The different organic wastes viz., kitchen waste, cattle waste and poultry waste are used as feed. A consistent feeding rate of 250 mg larva⁻¹day⁻¹ was maintained (Nana et al., 2018) [20] . Thus, 500 grams of each particular organic feed were added to each plastic tray daily until pupation. Each tray was covered with a net cloth to avoid egg laying by other flies and insects. In order to separate the prepupae from the remaining feed residue, they were sieved through a mesh screen with a diameter of 5 mm.

Bioconversion efficiency

By calculating the Bio Conversion Rate (BCR), Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) and Feed Reduction Rate (FRR), the effectiveness of BSF larvae to consume and reduce organic matter at a uniform feeding rate (250 mg larva⁻¹day⁻¹) was ascertained, as described previously by different authors (Barry, 2004; Diener et al., 2011; and Zhou et al., 2013) [2,7,32] .

Bioconversion Rate (%) = Total pre pupal weight Total feed added × 100

Feed reduction ratio (%) = 1 -Feed residue left Total feed added × 100

Feed conversion rate = Feed consumed Total prepupal weight × 100

Observations recorded

Wet or fresh weight measurements were made of the initial weight of the feed substrates and residual feed for each application. The total amount of feed supplied and the total amount of feed left were computed at the conclusion. Last instar (prepupa), pupal weights and the amount of feed consumed by BSF larvae were also recorded. Additionally, the larval period, pupal period and individual larval weight (n = 30) were noted.

Statistical analysis

The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design and the obtained data were transformed using an appropriate method and analysed through Analysis of Variance.

Results and Discussion

Larval period

The substrates that the BSF larvae were fed had a major impact on their developmental time. When the larvae become prepupae, they cease feeding. The larval period when black soldier fly reared on kitchen waste, cattle waste and poultry waste is 22.56, 33.46 and 29.76, respectively (Table 1). The current results are consistent with those of Khan et al. (2025) [11] 10,000 larvae were raised on an artificial feed consisting of 25 percent wheat bran, 10 percent maize flour and 65 percent water after being fed a conventional colony diet for five days. This resulted in a development time of 18.0±0.00 days. Oddon et al. (2024) [22] found larval development periods of 16.0, 24. [19] , who discovered a similar time range of 25.84 to 31.49 days for BSF larvae to reach the pupal stage on cow dung.

Mean individual larval weight at last instar (pre-pupa)

The black soldier fly reared on kitchen waste, cattle waste and poultry waste had mean prepupal weights of 0.26, 0.16 and 0.15 g, respectively. The total prepupal weight (2000 larvae) is 521.14, 324.57 and 301.43 g, respectively (Table 2). The current findings are similar to those of Khan et al.

(2025) [11] found that BSF larvae fed an artificial diet had a fresh biomass of 1847.9±43.04 g per 10,000 larvae following an initial 5-day normal diet. Taufek et al. (2024) [31] observed that chicken feed produced the most larval biomass (56.67±0.88 g), followed by mixed substrate (52.67±2.33 g), soybean curd residue (48.67±3.48 g), fish waste (44.67±0.88 g) and vegetable waste (39.33±0.88 g).Singh et al. (2022) [27] revealed that T₁-fruits and vegetable mix (0.142 g) had the highest average larval weight, followed by T₂-wheat bran, soy and corn meal mix (0.13 g) and T₃-dairy manure (0.105 g). Srikanth and Sharanabasappa (2021) [29] measured individual pre-pupal weights of 0.2 g for kitchen garbage and 0.17 g for fruit waste. Myers et al. (2008) [19] found that BSF raised on cow dung substrate showed a mean weight growth of 0.10 g per prepupa during the prepupal stage.

Pupal period

The mean pupal duration was significantly minimal on kitchen waste (10.15 days), followed by poultry waste (14.71 days); however, the maximum pupal duration was recorded on cattle waste (16.50 days) (Table 1). The results of the present investigation are parallel with the findings of More and Bhamare (2025) [18] who reported a pupation rate of 77.12±1.96 percent on poultry waste. Mahmoud et al.

(2025) [13] found that the pupation percentages of moist forms of spent larval substrate, topsoil, vermiculite, potting soil and wood shavings were 97.3%, 96.5%, 95.5%, 95.3% and 94.3%, respectively. According to Singh et al. (2022) [27] , T₁: fruits and vegetable mix had the highest pupation rate (84%), followed by T₂: wheat bran, soy and cornmeal mix (55%) and T₃: dairy manure (44%). Miranda et al.

(2020) [16] found that larvae fed the Gainesville diet had the highest prepupation rate (88%).

Feed consumed

The feed consumed by black soldier fly larvae when reared on kitchen waste, cattle waste and poultry waste is 7653.43, 7973.43 and 6254.29 grams, respectively. These results are consistent with the investigation by Mohod et al. (2024) [17] who demonstrated that 2000 BSF larvae consume 18.57 kg of kitchen waste. Madari et al. (2023) [14] reported that the feed consumed by 700 larvae was 1441.15 g out of 1500 g of kitchen waste. Srikanth et al. (2021) [29] demonstrated that larvae ingested 14±52.70 kg of kitchen waste out of 19 kg. Srikanth and Sharanabasappa (2021) [29] discovered that BSF larvae ingested 14,000 grams (6000 BSFL) of kitchen waste. Nana et al. (2018) [20] reported that 2641.2±4.2 g is consumed by larvae out of 3000 g of chicken manure.

Bioconversion rate (BCR)

The bioconversion rate of BSF larvae on kitchen waste (5.21%) was higher than that of cattle waste and poultry waste, which are 2.31 and 2.32, respectively. This remarkable efficiency in intake and digestion highlights the usefulness of kitchen waste as a nutrient dense substrate for BSF rearing. Cattle and poultry waste have BCR percent that are less suitable for the mass rearing of BSF. These results are consistent with the findings of Chapagaee et al.

(2025) [4] who reported that the BCR by BSF larvae is 5.23±.37 (%) on kitchen waste. Mohod et al. (2024) [17] revealed that the BCR on kitchen waste at 2000 larvae is 5.13 percent. Ganvir et al. (2022) [9] reported that the BCR on kitchen waste was 3.7 percent. Sumba et al. (2026) [30] reported that the BCR of bovine manure was 0.8 percent at a feeding rate of 50 mg day⁻¹larva⁻¹. Gold et al. (2020) reported that the BCR on cow manure was 3.8 percent.

Rehman et al. (2017) [26] reported that the dairy manure BCR was 4.19±0.09 percent. Sumba et al. (2026) [30] reported that the BCR of poultry manure is 3.9 percent at a feeding rate of 150 mg day⁻¹ larva⁻¹. Osei et al. (2025) [23] reported that the BSF larva BCR was 0.70±0.08 percent on poultry manure with wheat bran.

Feed conversion ratio (FCR)

The feed conversion ratio of black soldier fly larvae is higher when reared on cattle waste (24.59%), whereas poultry waste and kitchen waste FCR are 20.76 and 14.69 percent, respectively. These results are consistent with the results of Ahmed et al. (2024) [1] who reported that FCR on kitchen waste was 10.41 percent, whereas on chicken manure it was 11.71 percent. Mohod et al. (2024) [17] reported that the FCR of BSF on kitchen waste was 13.55 percent at a feeding rate of 2000 larvae 20kg⁻¹ kitchen waste. Madari et al. (2023) [14] reported that FCR on kitchen waste was 6.60 percent. Nana et al. (2018) [20] reported that the BSF larva FCR on kitchen waste was 15.3 percent at a feeding rate of 220 gm day ⁻¹larva⁻¹. Rehman et al. (2017) [25] reported that the FCR is high on dairy manure (10.29%) as compared to chicken manure (5.56%). Nyakeri et al.

(2017) [21] reported that the FCR on chicken manure was 13.4 percent, which is greater than that of restaurant food waste which is 2.6 percent.

Feed reduction ratio (FRR)

The feed reduction ratio by black soldier fly was higher on kitchen waste (76.53%) as compared to cattle waste and poultry waste, which were 56.96 and 48.12 percent, respectively. These results align with the findings of Chapagaee et al. (2025) [4] who reported that the waste reduction rate by BSF larvae on kitchen waste was 73.66±2.70 percent. Sumba et al. (2026) [30] reported that the BSF larvae waste reduction on poultry waste was 43.9 percent under 150 mg day⁻¹larva⁻¹. Ahmed et al. (2024) [1] reported that FRR (substrate reduction rate) on kitchen waste was high (47.02%), as compared to chicken manure (41.45%). Diola et al. (2023) [8] reported that the FRR (overall degradation) on chicken manure was 39.28 percent. Singh et al. (2021) [28] recorded a 72 percent FRR on kitchen waste. Rehman et al. (2019) [26] reported that the dry mass reduction of the dairy and chicken manure mixture was 41.98 percent. Lalander et al. (2019) [12] reported that the FRR on poultry waste is 60 percent. Nana et al. (2018) [20] reported that the BSF larva FRR on kitchen waste was 72.4 percent at a feeding rate of 220 gm day⁻¹ larva⁻¹. These findings highlight the significance of substrate selection in maximizing feed usage and support the view that substrate choice has a significant impact on feed reduction rates.

Acknowledgement

Acknowledgments: Authors acknowledge Department of Entomology, RCA, MPUAT, Udaipur for providing necessary support and fundings to carry out this research work.

References

1. Ahmed ST, Hassan MM, Islam MW, Resmi SI, Hossain MM. Production performance and nutritional quality of black soldier fly larvae nurtured in different organic waste. J Sci Technol Res. 2024;6(1):139-148.
2. Barry T. Evaluation of the economic, social and biological feasibility of bioconverting food wastes with the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Denton (TX): University of North Texas; 2004.
3. Bhada TP, Hoornweg DA. What a waste? A global review of solid waste management. Urban Dev Ser Knowl Pap. 2012;(15).
4. Chapagaee P, Thapa S, Shrestha S, Puri B, Ghimire A, Bist DR, et al. Valorisation of organic wastes through black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae: Impacts on growth, nutritional composition and bioconversion efficiency. Waste Manag Bull. 2025;4(1):100278.
5. Christensen TH, Scharff H, Hjelmar O. Landfilling: Concepts and challenges. Solid Waste Technol Manag. 2011;2:685-694.
6. CPCB. Annual report on implementation of solid waste management rules. 2021. Available from: https://cpcb.nic.in/uploads/MSW/MSW_AnnualReport _2021-22.pdf. Cited 2026 Jun 14.
7. Diener S, Nandayure M, Solano S, Gutiérrez FR, Zurbrügg C, Tockner K. Biological treatment of municipal organic waste using black soldier fly larvae. Waste Biomass Valor. 2011;2:357-363.
8. Diola CS, Nacilla EJ, Pardillo CA, Alosbaños RS, Evacitas F, Maglangit F. Waste reduction and bioconversion of quail, chicken and pig manure by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.). Philipp J Sci. 2024;153(2):609-618.
9. Ganvir KP, Darvekar AN, Raut VD, Thorat RK. Effect of locally generated food waste on bioconversion and nutrient parameters of black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia illucens L. J Entomol Zool Stud. 2022;10(5):108-116.
10. Gold M, Cassar CM, Zurbrügg C, Kreuzer M, Boulos S, Diener S, et al. Biowaste treatment with black soldier fly larvae: Increasing performance through the formulation of biowastes based on protein and carbohydrates. Waste Manag. 2020;102:319-329.
11. Khan JA, Guo X, Pichner R, Aganovic K, Heinz V, Hollah C, et al. Evaluation of nutritional and technofunctional aspects of black soldier fly high-protein extracts in different developmental stages. Animal. 2025;19(4):101463.
12. Lalander C, Diener S, Zurbrugg C, Vinneras B. Effects of feedstock on larval development and process efficiency in waste treatment with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). J Clean Prod. 2019;208:211-219.
13. Mahmoud A, Potter M, Ravindran V. Influence of substrate type, moisture and compaction on pupation and adult emergence of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Entomol Exp Appl. 2025;174(1):92-102.
14. Madari P, Mallapur CP, Kambrekar DN, Goudar G. Bioconversion of organic wastes using black soldier fly. J Farm Sci. 2023;36(4):373-376.
15. Marshall SA, Woodley NE, Hauser M. The historical spread of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae: Hermetiinae) and its establishment in Canada. J Entomol Soc Ont. 2015;146:51-54.
16. Miranda CD, Cammack JA, Tomberlin JK. Mass production of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) reared on three manure types. Animals. 2020;10(7):1243.
17. Mohod V, Bakane P, Nage S, Soneji I, Jadhao S, Undirwade D, et al. Biodegradation of kitchen waste into organic fertilizer using the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. Res Square. 2024.
18. More KV, Bhamare VK. Biology and biometrics of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) on poultry waste. In: Paschapur TB, Bhattacharyya B, Rahman S, Bhagawati S, Borkataki S, Suroshe SS, editors. Book of Abstracts: Entomology Students Conclave 2025. New Delhi: Entomological Society of India; 2025. p. 252.
19. Myers HM, Tomberlin JK, Lambert BD, Kattes D. Development of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae fed dairy manure. Environ Entomol. 2008;37(1):11-15.
20. Nana P, Kimpara J, Keambou TC, Tiogué C, Youmbi J, Choundong B, et al. Black soldier flies (Hermetia illucens Linnaeus) as recyclers of organic waste and possible livestock feed. Int J Biol Chem Sci. 2018;12(5):2004-2015.
21. Nyakeri EM, Ogola HJO, Ayieko MA, Amimo FA. Valorizations of organic waste material: Growth performance of wild black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) reared on different organic wastes. J Insects Food Feed. 2017;3(3):193-202.
22. Oddon SB, Ilaria B, Andrea R, Laura G. Black soldier fly life history traits can be influenced by isonutrientwaste-based diets. Ital J Anim Sci. 2024;23(1):331-341.
23. Osei S, Condua J, Osei F, Kumi F, Kissiwaa L. Effect of mixed feed substrates on the growth rate performance, waste reduction efficiency and nutritional content of black soldier fly larvae. J Ghana Inst Eng. 2025;25(3):55-60.
24. Pujara Y, Pathak P, Sharma A, Govani J. Review on Indian municipal solid waste management practices for reduction of environmental impacts to achieve sustainable development goals. J Environ Manage. 2019;248:1-14.
25. Rehman K, Cai M, Xiao X, Zheng L, Wang H, Soomro AA, et al. Cellulose decomposition and larval biomass production from the co-digestion of dairy manure and chicken manure by mini-livestock (Hermetia illucens L.). J Environ Manage. 2017;196:458-465.
26. Rehman K, Rehman R, Zheng L, Ur RA, Ziniu Y. Enhanced bioconversion of dairy and chicken manure by the interaction of exogenous bacteria and black soldier fly larvae. J Environ Manage. 2019;237:75-83.
27. Singh A, Marathe D, Raghunathan K, Kumari K. Effect of different organic substrates on selected life history traits and nutritional composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Environ Entomol. 2022;51:182189.
28. Singh A, Srikanth BH, Kumari K. Determining the BSF larvae performance for plant based food waste reduction and the effect on biomass yield. Waste Manag. 2021;130:147-154.
29. Srikanth BH, Sharanabasappa D. Growth performance and bioconversion rate of black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.). Indian J Entomol. 2021;83:203-210.
30. Sumba M, Carlos A, Diego P, Jorge A, Omar R, Malena T, et al. Feeding rate impacts on Hermetia illucens growth and bioconversion efficiency when using low-value organic wastes. Recycling. 2026;11:17.
31. Taufek NM, Zulkifli NFNM, Hamizah AN. Upcycling of food waste generated from the fresh market by utilising black soldier fly larvae: Influence on growth, bioconversion and nutritional composition. J Environ Manage. 2024;349:119467.
32. Zhou F, Tomberlin JK, Zheng L, Yu Z, Zhang J. Developmental and waste reduction plasticity of three black soldier fly strains (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) raised on different livestock manures. J Med Entomol. 2013;50(6):1224-1230.