A review study on cultivation of cultivars in hydroponic (Ebb and flow) technique

Introduction

Hydroponics originated from the Greek words "hydro" (water) and "ponos" (labour), is a soilless farming system in which plants are cultivated in nutrient solution (mineral nutrient solution) in an aqueous solvent to cultivate crops without soil, and hydroponics is also derived (the Bengal system, aquaculture, hydroculture, nutriculture, soilless culture, soilless agriculture, tank farming, chemical culture (Jan et al., 2020; Khatri et al., 2024 & Swain et al., 2021) [22,26,41] . In accordance with projections by the Food and Agriculture Organization, the worldwide human population is anticipated to reach approximately 9 billion by 2050, presenting a significant constraint to food productivity. Plant growth primarily relies on crucial parameters such as air, nutrients, water, and soil; however, soil-based farming is often constrained by the presence of disease-causing microorganisms, poor water regulation, and reducing soil quality, which can decline plant productivity. In the framework of the soilless cultivation technique, it emerges as an effective way to overcome these constraints and enhance agricultural productivity (Velazquez-Gonzalezet al., 2022; Macwan et al., 2020 & Ikrang et al., 2022) [20,30,48] . A variety of crops, which are lettuce, cucumber, herbs, and various flowering plants, have been successfully cultivated (Cifuentes-Torres et al., 2021). Relative to traditional soil-based farming, hydroponics substantially improves essential nutrients and water use efficacy while decreasing the occurrence of crop diseases. The vertical hydroculture technique is a space-optimizing technique, making it notably appropriate for areas with poor soil conditions and adverse climatic conditions, as well as for urban farming. In soilless techniques, various plants necessitate specific Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) levels, which can be accurately controlled through fully automated, semiautomated, and manually controlled techniques. This method is helpful in reducing weed growth rate and facilitates crop management, removing the requirement for supplementary irrigation methods such as spraying. Additionally, in comparison to conventional soil-based systems, hydroponics can achieve water conservation of approximately 70-80%. This technology has been extensively implemented in countries such as the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the United States, Israel, and Canada (Szekely & Jijakli, 2022; Kannan et al., 2022) [24,44] . Soil-based cultivation shows a natural biological system in which microorganisms, comprising archaea, are intrinsically present and serve a crucial role in plant growth by facilitating auxin biological synthesis and increasing essential nutrient accessibility. In hydroponic techniques, an extensive range of crops, such as cucumber, strawberry, chili, tomato, and leafy green vegetables, can be successfully cultivated. Within these, spinach and lettuce are regarded as significantly promising crops, as they demonstrate effective nutrient uptake and robust growth in aquaculture and soilless methods (Kumar et al., 2021, and Gohet al., 2023) [17,23] . Soilless techniques are developing as a viable option to traditional soil-based agriculture, especially in response to insufficient area accessibility and enhancing challenges caused by biotic and abiotic stress parameters. In countries like India, where there is a growing requirement to increase agricultural yield, a soilless system provides a notable capacity to enhance crop cultivation. Correspondingly, in Pakistan, where agricultural techniques deal with various limitations such as limited accessibility of cultivating machines, unavailability of standard tools, inconsistent monsoon sequence, and repeated pest incidences, hydroponic methods have been effectively applied for the farming of high-value saffron crops (Ampim et al., 2022; Khan et al., n.d.) [6,25] . Different hydroponic systems, such as nutrient film technique (NFT), deep water culture (DWC), drip system, floating system, capillary action technique, ebb and flow technique (flood and drain), hanging bag technique, and grow bag technique, are popular plant cultivation technique used to grow various vegetable speices. Additionally, various regulated environment agriculture technique such as vertical farming, glasshouse, polyhouse, greenhouse, screen house, hoops house are widely applied to increase crop yield. The effectiveness and output of these indoor cultivation methods are notably affected by key environmental elements, such as light quality, carbon dioxide (CO2), heat, and relative humidity (Atherton & Li, 2023;Ampim et al., 2022) [6,7] . Urban places widely face substantial limitations such as water deficit and constrained land accessibility. Soilless offers a highly efficient and environmentally sustainable strategy to these limitations by facilitating hydroponics with improved water use. Furthermore, strategy opens new prospects for city area farming by converting poorly utilized and unused areas to not only increase local food resource cultivation but also promote local population and environmental sustainability (Noxolo & Kanosvamhira, 2026) [33] . In city area, a soilless farming method could be promising and eco-friendly option to cultivate plants, that has ability to replace soil and facilitates managed production under limited land availability (de Castro Silva et al., 2021) [13] . Soilless farming systems also provide innovative and effective strategies for the cultivation of fodder for livestock. The method facilitates the farming of animal feed under regulated environments without the need for soil. It offers a cost-efficient and consistent technique for long, prolonged fodder production (Abdula et al., 2022) [4] .

Hydroponics techniques 1. DWC (Deep Water Culture): Among different hydroponic techniques, deep water culture is recognized as highly appropriate for leafy green vegetables, as these crops need limited structural stabilization. In this technique, plant roots persist immersed in a nutrientoxygenated solution, securing effective nutrient assimilation and oxygenation. In the incident of pump collapse, the setup offers enough time periods for fixing the pump failure problem (Mariyappillai et al., 2020) [31] . (Figure 1).

NFT (Nutrient Film Technique): Nutrient film

technique is widely applied for the production of microgreen plants. In this technique, a thin layer of nutrient media consistently flows over the plant roots, providing effective nutrient uptake. The nutrient solution is drained out and recirculated from the nutrient tank, and oxygenation is regulated using air stones to facilitate oxygen accessibility (Mariyappillai et al., 2020). (Figure 2) [31] .

Ebb and Flow (Flood and Drain): The ebb and flow

technique is favorable for various types of plants. It promotes efficient nutrient solution delivery by fixedtime interval solution immersion of the root zone with nutrient media, subsequently followed by drainage into the reservoir tank. This technique permits the growing media to maintain enough nutrients and moisture and supports crop growth. The use of strong containers with good water-holding capacity is necessary for its performance (Sharma et al., 2018) [40] . (Figure 3).

Drip system:

The drip technique is another efficient soilless system that provides nutrient media to the root area with high water-use effectiveness, resulting in enhanced crop cultivation. The use of organic nutrient media may result in clogging in pipelines; chemical nutrients are commonly recommended in this method (Sharma et al., 2018) [40] (Figure 4).

Root dipping system:

The root dipping method is an easy and cost-effective soilless technique that does not demand the use of equipment such as water and aeration pumps. In this technique, crops are propagated in net pots, with the lower 2-3 cm area of the root explicitly dipped in the nutrient media tank, facilitating a constant nutrient supply to the plant roots. Due to its limited structural demands, this method is recognized as significantly affordable and simple to maintain (Mariyappillai et al., 2020). (Figure 5) [31] . 6. Floating method: The floating system shows an effective soilless strategy in which cultivars are secured in a foam sheet, enabling them to persist stabilized on the surface of the nutrient media while their crop roots are constantly immersed (Mariyappillai et al., 2020) [31] . 7. Capillary action system: The capillary action system uses net pots of differing sizes based on plant type, which are fixed with nutrient media. In this method, nutrient absorption arises spontaneously through capillary action, promoting the transport of the nutrient media from the nutrient tank to the crop roots without the requirement for extrinsic energy supply (Mariyappillai et al., 2020) [31] . (Figure 7). 8. Hanging Bag system: The hanging bag method is an open soilless technique in which the nutrient media is delivered from the top using a water pump and sprinkler equipment. The nutrient solution is supplied onto a growing media such as coco fiber, enabling crop roots to uptake the needed nutrients effectively. In this technique, tubular polythene bags are supported upright, and crops are cultivated within these bags. Extra nutrient solution flows out downwardly and is gathered back into a nutrient tank for recirculation. This method allows effective upright space consumption (Mariyappillai et al., 2020) [31] . (Figure 8). 9. Grow bag technique: The grow bag system is other soilless technique that used polythene grow bags packed with chemically inactive media such cocopeat. Micro pores are formed on the outer layer of the bags, into which crops are implanted. Nutrient media is delivered through tubes immediately to the root area.

For outflow openings/slits are created across the lateral surface of the bags, enabling extra nutrient solution to flow out. This technique secures sufficient nutrient accessibility and avoids water saturation around the plant roots (Mariyappillai et al., 2020) [31] . (Figure 9). 10. Trench / trough system: The trench system is a soilless technique in which flow channels are established either explicitly on the ground or coated with water-resistant substrates to avoid seepage. Crops are cultivated within these flow channels using appropriate substrates such as cocopeat, sand, or rockbased media. The nutrient media is delivered through a drip fertigation or hand operation, facilitating constant delivery of nutrient solution to the crop roots. This technique offers efficient root stabilization extensively utilized for commercial-scale production (Mariyappillai et al., 2020) [31] . (Figure 10). 11. Pot system: The pot system is the same as the trench technique; pots are used for plant farming. Various types (different sizes) of pots are chosen based on the particular needs of the crops. These pots are packed with suitable media, and nutrient media are delivered either hand-operated or through drip techniques. This technique provides adaptability and is appropriate for limited-scale farming (Mariyappillai et al., 2020) [31] . (Figure 11). 12. Aeroponics system: The aeroponics system is a modern soilless technique in which crop roots are elevated in the air and are not integrated in any solid substrate. Nutrient media is supplied directly to the plant roots in the form of micro aerosol spray at continuous cycles. Cultivars are stabilized using structure such as Styrofoam sheets, while the plant roots persist aerially exposed in an oxygen-rich surrounding. This technique increases nutrient absorption, promotes oxygenation, and is especially appropriate for leafy cultivars (Mariyappillai et al., 2020) [31] . (Figure 12). 13. Wick system: The wick system (soilless system) is a distinct soilless technique in which a cotton thread is applied to uptake nutrients from the nutrient solution and deliver for cultivars (Ahmedet al., 2021) [3] . Organic nutrient solutions are not options for agricultural cultivars instead offers aneffective technique for nutrient resource exploitation (Ortiz, 2020) [34] . Adeyemi applied organic nutrient media and organic mineral nutrient solution in his research work (Adeyemiet al., 2020) [1] . [18] Fig 10: Pot system (Whankateet al., 2024) [49] Fig 11: Aeroponics (Hakim, 2019) [19] Fig 12: Wick system (Sousa et al., 2024) [46] Methodology Selection of plant species and hydroponic system Different researchers used various plant/crop species to assess the effectivity of different soilless methods. Khan chose saffron (Crocus sativus) and analyzed its farming applying ebb and flow, nutrient film technique, and drip systems in a comparative study with soil-based techniques (Khan et al., n.d.) [25] . Boldrin farmed canna lily (Canna indica) applying a semi-hydroponic and ebb and flow (flood and drain) technique (Boldrin et al., 2020) [9] . Gymnocalycium mihanovichii was reported and studied under hydroponic system (Park & Lee, 2023) [37] . [2,11] . The spinach (Spinacia oleracea) cultivar and growth rate under NFT (flood and drain), and soil-based systems was studied (Indira & Rani, 2024) [21,38] . Srivani also used spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and investigated it under DWC and nutrient film techniques (Srivani et al., 2022) [41] . Adeyemi and Sahoo applied maize (Zea mays) as the test study crop, and Suchitrarani applied strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) for farming studies (Adeyemi et al., 2020 and Sahoo et al., 2024) [1,45] .

Growing media:

The various types of media /growing media used by different researchers are compiled in tabulation given below. [9] 2.

Gravel, sand, peat, vermiculite, pumice, saw dust, cocopeat, vermicompost, peatmoss, perlite, viz. sand, rice hulls, stones. Patil et al., 2020 [35] 3.

Rockwool, coco coir, perlite, vermiculite, oasis cubes, sand, rice hulls.

Gaikwad & Maitra, 2020 [15]

4

Vermiculite, perlite, sand, coco coir, Pumice, Stones, expanded clay, foam, cubes, rockwool cubes. Pinkertonet al., 2022 [36] Nutrient solution -Ahmed used an organic nutrient media / nutrient solution generated fromfish waste in his research study / work. He observed that it was extensively effective [5] Elements From taken by plants (mg L -

Major findings and achievements

Khan observed the effective farming of saffron (Crocus sativa) under regulated environments, obtaining up to 4 cultivation cycles per year. Each production cycle needed approximately 2.5-3 months for completing the cycle (Khan et al., n.d.) [25] . Abd EI-Aziz Amr & Hisham Fathy found that the integration of green walls greatly enhanced heat regulation by 4-6ºC and decreased the cooling energy demand by approximately 12%. Additionally, the utilization of NFT occurred in a 30-35% decrease in cooling energy demand, with reported heat decreasing between 2 and 8 °C (Abd EI-Aziz Amr & Hisham Fathy, 2025) [8] . AL-Kinani reported that the lettuce cultivated in NFT presented a higher yield (25 days) for market and ebb and flow technique with a cultivar cycle (35-40 days) (AL-Kinani et al., 2021) [2] . Srivani used an assembled classifier model in a soilless technique, obtaining a reliability of 79% in water culture techniques and 64% in NFT techniques (Srivani et al., 2022) [41] . Ampim observed that indoor cultivation is an encouraging and effective method; however, it needs also research and notable funding for extensive adoption (Ampim et al., 2022) [6] . Indira and Rani observed that spinach (Spinacia oleracea) presented better plant growth in the nutrient film technique (NFT) method contrasted with the ebb and flow technique and soil-based farming.

Increased factors involve plant height, fresh leaf, number of leaves, leaf area, and total production (Indira & Rani, 2024) [21, 38] .

Scope of advancement/future prospects of technology development

Setiawan used a pump control technique and reported that the tidal system can efficiently control the on/off process of water pumps. This technique enables the time interval of the water pump process to be controlled, thereby resulting in energy efficiency (Setiawan et al., 2022) [43] . Atherton and Li reported that various medicinal plants need various types of soilless methods, according to their morphological structure (Atherton & Li, 2023) [7] . Soilless techniques have also been investigated for practical applications in space research work, highlighting their capacity for use in regulated and challenging environments (Madaik & Thalyari, 2025) [32] . Srivani proposed that intelligence models for crop growth forecasting can be established to increase technique effectivity and yield (Srivani et al., 2022) [41] . Lim observed that the incorporation of cultivars in vertical cultivation methods is practical work and may constitute a substantial innovation in genome engineering, space farming, and precision agriculture (Lim et al., 2024) [27] .

Advantages

• Soilless techniques provide a regulated growing climate that may decrease crop contact with exogenous biotic/abiotic stress parameters such as UV radiation. Furthermore, when compared to traditional agriculture farming, soilless methods enable simpler, effective yielding of cultivars (Swain et al., 2021) [41] . • The soilless technique enables the farming of cultivars even at the time of "off season," especially when market values are high (Swain et al., 2021) [41] . • Soilless methods provide various advantages over conventional cultivation, such as effective utilization of assets, rapid crop growth rate, and a regulated environment with consistent conditions. These techniques maintain constant cultivar quality and even growth, enable enhanced crop density, and impact good disease management (Khatri et al., 2024) [26] . • Soilless (hydroponics) methods provide minimum human resources, and subsequent to primary one-time expenditure, the technique becomes functional; it offers higher production (Bunyuth & Mardy, 2024) [10] . • In hydroponics (soilless), a controlled condition is offered to crops manually, whereas the conventional method is mainly dependent on climatic parameters (Dubey & Nain, 2020) [12] .

Limitations

•

In the soilless method, the expenditure of establishment for the area used is very high (Swain et al., 2021) [41] . [41] . • Hydroponics technique needs technical proficiency, and initial expenditure is very high (Khatri et al., 2024) [26] . • Soilless farming needs a skilled person who can effectively maintain the setup, as the hydroponic method is a complicated procedure including nutrient transport and entire crop health maintenance (Bunyuth & Mardy, 2024) [10] . • •The scarcity of seeds causes challenges for cultivators, as reduced presence enhances their price, thereby increasing the overall cost in soilless cultivation (Ghorbel et al., 2022) [16] . • •In spite of offering good production, the soilless technique includes particular technical and economic difficulties, such as transport and balanced nutrient media to crops (Thapa et al., 2024) [47] .

Conclusion

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgementI would like to mention my sincere gratitude to Head, SLS, PRSU; Professor Arti Parganiha; and Professor Amia Ekka for providing their valuable guidance and moral support during my whole research study. I also express my appreciation and special thanks to our technical staff, including Mr. Suresh Sonkar, Mr. Arun Jangde, and Mr. Amit Gupta, for their precious, valuable guidelines, constant support, and inspiration in my research work. I would also like to genuinely thank the faculty as well as non-teaching staff of K. L. Art and Commerce College, Bagbahara, and Govt. Nagarjun PG College, Raipur, for providing me the opportunity to explore a national conference.

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