Women entrepreneurship in agriculture: Contributions, constraints, and policy interventions – a review

Introduction

Agriculture in India is not merely an economic activity, it is the foundation of rural livelihoods, food security and cultural identity. Within this vast sector, women play an enormous and disproportionately under-recognized role. From sowing seeds and tending crops to managing livestock, processing food and marketing produce, women perform an estimated 60-80% of the total agricultural labour in many parts of India (FAO, 2023). Yet, paradoxically, they own less than 14% of agricultural land, receive less than 20% of agricultural extension services and have historically been classified as "agricultural labourers" rather than "farmers" in policy and administrative frameworks (MANAGE, 2023). Entrepreneurship in agriculture, defined broadly as the initiation, management and risk-taking involved in farmbased and agri-allied enterprises for economic gain has been increasingly recognized as a critical pathway for rural development and poverty reduction. Women agrientrepreneurs contribute to food security, household nutrition, rural employment and economic growth, often more efficiently than their male counterparts due to their reinvestment of income into family welfare (World Bank, 2023). Studies consistently demonstrate that closing the gender gap in access to agricultural resources could increase women's farm productivity by 20-30%, reducing total hunger by 100-150 million people globally (FAO, 2023). India's agricultural landscape is witnessing a significant structural shift driven by male out-migration to urban centres. As men leave rural areas for non-farm employment, women are increasingly becoming the de facto managers of family farms. This phenomenon termed the "feminisation of agriculture" is documented across multiple studies, with approximately 33% of rural males having migrated for work (Census of India, 2011; NSSO, 2019). Women left behind manage critical farm operations, make input and marketing decisions and sustain family nutrition, yet these contributions remain largely invisible in official statistics and policy frameworks. Against this backdrop, the present review article undertakes a comprehensive examination of women's entrepreneurship in Indian agriculture, structured around three core dimensions: (i) the multifaceted contributions women make to agricultural enterprise, (ii) the multi-layered constraints that limit their participation and growth and (iii) the policy interventions both existing and proposed that can create an www.extensionjournal.com enabling environment for women agri-entrepreneurs to thrive. The specific objectives of this review are: (a) To document the varied and evolving roles of women in agricultural entrepreneurship across diverse subsectors. (b) To systematically analyse the structural, social, economic and institutional constraints impeding women's agri-entrepreneurship. (c) To evaluate the design, implementation and outcomes of key policy and programmatic interventions targeting women farmers. (d) To derive evidence-based recommendations for strengthening women's entrepreneurial participation in Indian agriculture.

2.

Conceptual framework: Women's agrientrepreneurship 2.1 Defining women agri-entrepreneurship Women agri-entrepreneurship refers to the engagement of women in initiating, organizing, managing and bearing the risk of agricultural and agri-allied enterprises with the objective of generating income and creating value. This encompasses a broad spectrum of activities: Tier 1 -Farm-level enterprises: Crop production, horticulture, floriculture, vegetable cultivation, organic farming and seed production. Tier 2 -Livestock-based enterprises: Dairy, poultry, goatery, fisheries, beekeeping and sericulture. Tier 3 -Value addition and processing: Food processing, agro-processing, packaging, storage and quality certification. Tier 4 -Market-linked enterprises: Agri-retail, direct marketing, e-commerce of farm products and agri-service provision. Tier 5 -Knowledge and technology enterprises: Agricultural extension services, agritech product demonstration and rural consultancy.

The feminisation of agriculture (PM IAS, 2023)

The "feminisation of agriculture" is a well-documented global phenomenon (FAO, 2011). In India, it has been driven by three interrelated processes: (i) male migration from rural to urban areas for better-paid non-farm employment; (ii) agrarian distress that reduces the economic viability of farming for male heads of households; and (iii) expansion of women's roles through government-supported livelihood programs. Census and PLFS (Periodic Labour Force Survey) data reveal compelling statistics: the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) in India rose from 23.3% in 2017-18 to 41.7% in 2023-24, with rural women driving this increase primarily through agricultural engagement (PLFS, 2024). Approximately 76.95% of rural women workers are engaged in agriculture and allied sectors.

The gender-productivity gap

The gender-productivity gap in agriculture, defined as the difference in farm productivity between male and female managed farms is well established in the literature. In India, women-managed farms on average show 10-20% lower productivity than male-managed farms, not due to inherent differences in capability, but because of differential access to productive resources: land, credit, information, technology and inputs (NCAER, 2023). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that eliminating this gap through equal resource access could increase agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5-4%.

Contributions of Women to Agricultural Entrepreneurship 3.1 Labour and crop production

Women's labour contribution to crop production in India is both extensive and essential. They perform approximately 60-80% of crop production work including seed selection, nursery management, transplanting, weeding, fertiliser and pesticide application, harvesting and post-harvest handling activities. This contribution is highest in labour-intensive crops such as paddy, vegetables and tea, where women's participation can reach 90% of total labour days.

Livestock and Allied Sectors

Women are the primary caregivers of livestock in most Indian farming households, managing feed preparation, milking, healthcare and sanitation. In the dairy sector which contributes approximately Rs. 9.5 lakh crore annually to the Indian economy women manage an estimated 70-80% of on-farm dairy activities. ICAR-CIWA (Central Institute for Women in Agriculture) has documented numerous cases where women have transformed backyard poultry and goatery units into profitable agri-enterprises with targeted training and institutional support (ICAR-CIWA, 2023).

Organic farming and sustainable agriculture

Women have been at the forefront of the organic farming movement in India, particularly in states like Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. Their deep traditional knowledge of local plant varieties, soil management practices, composting and natural pest control has given them a competitive advantage in organic crop production. Notable examples include:  Rubi pareek (Rajasthan): Converted a 12-acre family farm to organic production, established a vermicompost and Azolla production unit and trained over 15,000 farmers in organic farming practices (Better India, 2023).  Andhra pradesh community-managed natural farming (APCNF): Implemented through women SHGs, with over 7 lakh women farmers adopting ZBNF practices across 6 lakh hectares. The program has reduced input costs by 50-60% and improved household food and nutritional security (GoAP, 2023).

Food processing and value addition

Women's involvement in agro-processing and food value addition represents one of the most dynamic and economically impactful domains of women's agrientrepreneurship:  Millet-based products: Women's collectives in Rajasthan, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are producing and marketing millet-based health foods through ecommerce platforms.  Case Study Jaithri Foods (Kerala): A KVK-mentored women's collective in Thrissur District established a www.extensionjournal.com comprehensive food processing unit handling mango, jackfruit and coconut-based products, scaling from cottage-level production to a formal enterprise with regular institutional buyers (ICAR, 2023).

Horticulture and high-value crops

Women entrepreneurs are increasingly moving into highvalue horticulture crops such as vegetables, flowers, fruits and spices which offer higher returns per unit area than staple crops and align with women's smaller landholding sizes. Flower cultivation, turmeric and ginger cultivation and off-season vegetable production in polyhouse structures are prominent areas of women's entrepreneurial engagement.

agritech and digital entrepreneurship (YourStory, 2024)

Women trained as "Krishi Sakhi" (agriculture friends), "Pashu Sakhi" (livestock friends) and "Bank Sakhi" (banking friends) under DAY-NRLM and MKSP are functioning as micro-entrepreneurs who deliver agricultural extension services, input supply and financial services to fellow farmers at the village level (NAARM, 2023).

Women's contribution to household food and nutritional security

Studies consistently show that when women control agricultural income, a larger proportion is spent on food, children's education and healthcare compared to malecontrolled income (FAO, 2023; World Bank, 2023). Women's role in maintaining backyard nutrition gardens, producing diverse food crops and managing livestock provides a nutritional safety net for rural households.

Constraints in women's agri-entrepreneurship 4.1 Land ownership and tenure insecurity

Land is the fundamental productive asset in agriculture and the primary collateral for formal credit (Landesa, 2023) [13] . However, women's access to land remains severely constrained in India. According to the Agricultural Census (2015-16), only 12.8% of operational landholdings are held by women (Drishti IAS, 2023) [3] . The figure from NSSO data places women's land ownership at approximately 13-14% of rural women nationally (NSSO, 2019) and (SPRF India, 2023). Barriers to women's land ownership:  Legal barriers: Despite progressive legislation, the Hindu Succession Act (Amendment, 2005) giving daughters equal inheritance rights most land transfers continue through patrilineal inheritance norms, bypassing women's legal entitlements.  Administrative barriers: Land records are predominantly registered in the names of male household heads.  Consequences: Without land title, women cannot access institutional credit, do not qualify as "farmers" under many government schemes, cannot avail PM-KISAN income transfer and have limited bargaining power.

Access to institutional credit and finance

The Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme is largely inaccessible to women farmers due to the land collateral requirement. As of 2023, women hold only about 30% of KCC accounts and even these are often in joint names with male household members (RBI, 2023). Microfinance through SHG-Bank linkage has partially addressed this gap. As of 2024, DAY-NRLM has mobilized over 10 crore rural women into SHGs with a cumulative credit disbursement exceeding Rs. 9 lakh crores (Root Capital, 2023). However, SHG credit is typically limited in scale (Rs. 50,000-Rs. 5 lakhs per member) and may be inadequate for capital-intensive agri-enterprises (NABARD, 2023).

Access to agricultural extension

Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and Financial Inclusion

Efforts to make KCC more accessible to women include: (i) relaxing land collateral requirements for women-only groups; (ii) extending KCC to livestock farmers (traditionally women-dominant); and (iii) simplified application processes through PM Jan Dhan Yojana linkages. The government's 2020 expansion of KCC to fisheries and animal husbandry workers has potentially benefited a significant number of women.

ICAR Institutional programs for women ICAR-CIWA (Central Institute for Women in

Agriculture, Bhubaneswar): The only ICAR institute exclusively dedicated to women in agriculture, ICAR-CIWA conducts research on women's roles and constraints, develops gender-sensitive agricultural technologies and implements field outreach programs.

KVK (Krishi Vigyan Kendra) Network: KVKs across

India conduct training and demonstration programs specifically for women farmers in enterprise development, food processing technology and quality standards. ICAR institutes have also developed ergonomically designed, lightweight farm tools for women to reduce drudgery.

Agricultural extension reforms for gender inclusion

Krishi Sakhi Programme: Under NRLM, women trained as Krishi Sakhis (agriculture community resource persons) serve as para-extension workers in their villages. Over 3 lakh Krishi Sakhis are operational nationally (PIB, 2024).

Digital extension platforms:

Mobile-based advisory services (mKisan, Kisan Suvidha, Digital Krishi) are increasingly being designed with voice-based, vernacularlanguage interfaces to improve usability for low-literacy women. www.extensionjournal.com 5.7 Land rights and tenure reforms  Joint land titling policies: States including Odisha, Bihar and Chhattisgarh have introduced policies mandating joint titling for land distributed under government schemes.  Women-only land distribution: Some states have reserved a proportion of land distributed under land reform programs exclusively for women-headed households.  PM-KISAN inclusion: Advocacy efforts are underway to amend PM-KISAN eligibility to include women who manage farms but do not hold land titles.

Role of farmer producer organizations (FPOs) in promoting women

The promotion of 10,000 Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) under the central government scheme (2020-2025) has created significant opportunities for women's collective agri-entrepreneurship. Many state governments and NABARD have established targets for women-only or women-majority FPOs. Notable example: The Odisha Millet Mission, operating through women's SHG-FPO linkages, has revived millet cultivation across the state and enabled women farmer groups to market nutritious millet products to institutional buyers, online marketplaces and export markets.

Stand-up india scheme

The Stand-Up India scheme facilitates bank loans between Rs. 10 lakh and Rs. 1 crore to at least one-woman borrower per bank branch for greenfield enterprises, including agroprocessing, food manufacturing and rural trade.

Policies for digital and market access

 Free or subsidized smartphone distribution to rural women SHG members (implemented in states including Rajasthan, Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh).  E-NAM (electronic National Agricultural Market):

Platform enabling online trading of agricultural produce, providing women with price discovery and direct market access.  One District One Product (ODOP): Promotes locally distinctive products many of which are womenmanufactured through branding, packaging and GI tag support.

Case studies in women's agri-entrepreneurship 6.1 Andhra pradesh community-managed natural farming (APCNF)

The APCNF program, launched in 2016, is one of the world's largest agroecology transitions, implemented entirely through women's SHG networks. As of 2023, over 7 lakh women farmers across 6 lakh hectares have adopted Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) practices. Outcomes: reduced average input costs per acre from Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 4,000; improved crop yields by 15-25%; and enhanced women's leadership and decision-making.

Odisha Millet Mission (Odisha Millet Mission, 2023)

The Odisha Millet Mission (OMM), operating since 2017, has revived traditional millet cultivation through women's SHG and FPO networks. The mission has brought over 2 lakh hectares back under millet cultivation, created 500+ women-managed millet value chain enterprises and linked women-led FPOs to institutional buyers, modern retail chains and export markets.

Kudumbashree (Kerala)

The Kudumbashree mission has mobilized 45 lakh women across Kerala into a network of collective enterprises. Kudumbashree women collectively cultivate over 50,000 hectares of leased land under group farming. The program includes 3.5 lakh registered micro-enterprises spanning food processing, dairy, goatery and agri-input supply and has provided over Rs. 5,000 crores in micro-credit to member households (Kudumbashree Mission, 2023) [12] .

Mahila kisans of jharkhand (JSLPS, 2023)

The 8.9 Recognition as Farmers: Amend PM-KISAN, crop insurance and agricultural subsidy eligibility criteria to include women who are de facto farm managers, using alternative documentation in lieu of formal land title.

Research and Evidence:

Invest in genderdisaggregated agricultural data collection in all government surveys and research programs.

Conclusion

Women are the invisible backbone of Indian agriculture. They contribute irreplaceable labour, knowledge and entrepreneurial energy across the entire agricultural value chain, yet remain systematically excluded from the resources, recognition and institutional support that would enable their full economic participation. This review has documented that women agri-entrepreneurs in India are not a homogeneous group but a diverse, capable and resilient constituency operating across organic farming, food processing, dairy, horticulture, livestock and emerging digital agri-services. Their contributions economic, nutritional and social far exceed their recognition in policy discourse. The constraints they face land tenure insecurity, restricted credit, gender-blind extension services, socio-cultural barriers and the digital divide are neither inevitable nor insurmountable. They are the result of historical structural inequities that can and must be addressed through deliberate, well-resourced and gender-transformative policy interventions.

Investing in women agri-entrepreneurs through land rights reform, accessible finance, inclusive extension, digital empowerment and collective enterprise support is not only a matter of equity: it is the single most high-return investment India can make in agricultural productivity, food security and rural poverty reduction.

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