Comparative analysis of irrigation technologies and their impact on water use efficiency in northeast India

Introduction

From global freshwater resource, agriculture consumes approximately 70.00 per cent of that fresh water and that making it as largest consumer of worldwide water. As the population grows, urbanization and industrialization, water scarcity due to climate changes has impacted in the agricultural sector. Flood irrigation, run off and loss of water through evaporation creates an urgent need for new and more efficient technologies for irrigation. Several advanced irrigation technology has been developed to minimize the water loss. The new technology focuses on delivering water directly to the plant root zone which reduces run off losses.

Types of technology irrigation 1. Smart irrigation system: Also known as digital irrigation or precision irrigation. They rely on fixed schedules and this technology use real time data to determine when, where and how much water is needed, it helps reduce water wastage also improve efficiency. This method is good for the places/regions which face water scarcity or the weather pattern is unpredictable. 2. Drip irrigation: This is also known as micro or trickle irrigation, it is considered as highly efficient method of irrigate ion which allows the water to drip in the root zone of plants, say below or above the surface of side. Drip irrigation method minimizes evaporations and run off and ensures that water and nutrients are used effectively which could increase crop yields and reduce the environmental impact.

Sprinkler irrigation:

It is a kind of method applying water to the crops like an artificial rain and sprinkler/pipes are used in this method so that water is distributed evenly over the soil surface. The sprinkler sprays the water into air through nozzles creating a mist which falls to the ground. This method is suitable and effective in area where traditional surface irrigation is impractical due to uneven terrain or soil conditions. 4. Jalkund irrigation: Jalkund water irrigation is a low cost rainwater harvesting method that helps farmers in the North Eastern Himalayan region of India to store rainwater for use during the dry month. Bamboo drip irrigation: Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs on the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity. The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert and convey water to the plot site where it is distributed without leakage into branches, again made and laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. Manipulating the intake www.extensionjournal.com pipe positions also controls the flow of water into the lateral pipes. Reduced channel sections and diversion units are used at the last stage of water application. The last channel section enables the water to be dropped near the roots of the plant. About four to five stages of distribution are involved from the point of the water diversion to the application point. The water for betel leaf plants is diverted from streams by temporary diversions into very intricate bamboo canal systems. Betel leaf is planted in March before the monsoon. It is only during winter that irrigation water is required, and the bamboo pipe system is used. Hence, these bamboo systems are made ready before the onset of the winter, and during the monsoon no water is diverted into them.

Methodology

This review article is based on a comprehensive analysis of published literature on irrigation technologies and their impact on water use efficiency and agricultural sustainability. Relevant research articles, review papers, and reports were collected from major scientific databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, and Science Direct. The literature search was conducted using keywords such as "irrigation technologies," "drip irrigation," "smart irrigation systems," "water use efficiency," "precision agriculture," and "sustainable irrigation." Studies published between 2010 and 2025 were primarily considered to ensure the inclusion of recent advancements and findings. The selected studies were screened based on relevance, methodological rigor, and focus on water-saving technologies in agriculture. Both qualitative and quantitative studies were included to provide a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of irrigation technologies. Data from the selected studies were analyzed and synthesized under key themes such as water use efficiency, crop productivity, environmental impact, and economic feasibility.

Results

The review of existing literature indicates that modern irrigation technologies significantly improve water use efficiency and agricultural productivity compared to traditional irrigation methods.

Water Use Efficiency

Studies consistently show that drip irrigation systems achieve the highest water use efficiency, ranging between 80.00 to 95.00 per cent, compared to 30.00 to 50.00 per cent in conventional flood irrigation (Postel et al., 2001; FAO, 2017) [19,10] . Smart irrigation systems further enhance efficiency by optimizing irrigation scheduling based on realtime data (Evans & Sadler, 2008) [9] . Jalkund had helped improve water management, cropping intensity and livelihood security in hill ecosystems. It acts as a supplemental irrigation during the rabi season and it also enhances the agricultural productivity. In Meghalaya, an ingenious system of tapping of stream and spring water by using bamboo pipes to irrigate plantations is widely prevalent. It is so perfected that about 18-20 litres of water entering the bamboo pipe system per minute gets transported over several hundred metres and finally gets reduced to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant. The tribal farmers of Khasi and Jaintia hills use this harvesting system to drip irrigate their black pepper cultivation (Agarwal, A. and Narain, S., 1997 [1] , Dying Wisdom: Rise and Fall of India"s Traditional Water harvesting System. Centre for Science and Environment. New Delhi. p. 64)

Crop Productivity

The adoption of advanced irrigation technologies has been associated with increased crop yields. Drip irrigation improves yield by 20.00 to 50.00 per cent due to precise water and nutrient delivery (Fereres & Soriano, 2007) [11] . Similarly, precision irrigation techniques contribute to improved plant growth and uniformity (Gebbers & Adamchuk, 2010) [12] .

Reduction in Water Loss

Modern irrigation systems significantly reduce water losses due to evaporation, runoff, and deep percolation. Microirrigation systems minimize surface evaporation, while smart irrigation systems prevent over-irrigation (Dukes et al., 2010) [8] .

Environmental Impact

Efficient irrigation technologies contribute to reduced soil erosion, minimized nutrient leaching, and prevention of waterlogging (Tilman et al., 2002) [22] . However, excessive groundwater extraction associated with automated irrigation systems has been reported in some regions (Rodell et al., 2018) [20] . The ability of Jalkund to store water mitigates the impact of water scarcity and helps climate change. Jalkund helps in sustainable development of hill ecosystems in North Eastern Himalayas, ensuring food security, improved livelihood and environmental sustainability.

Economic Impact

Although the initial investment in technologies such as drip and smart irrigation systems is high, long-term benefits include reduced water and labor costs and increased profitability (Narayanamoorthy, 2007) [17] . The demand has been increased for micro irrigation and low cost water harvesting system. So low cost water harvesting is found suitable for the farmers of the hilltop for small scale agricultural activities. Jalkund is found acceptable and economical for those who live in hill top. (Bhakta, D., et al., 2019) [3]

Adoption and Constraints of Irrigation Technologies

Despite the proven benefits of modern irrigation technologies, their adoption remains uneven across regions. Factors such as high initial investment, lack of technical knowledge, limited access to credit, and inadequate extension services hinder widespread adoption (Kumar et al., 2018) [15] . Small and marginal farmers, particularly in developing countries, face greater challenges in adopting these technologies.

Role of Government Policies and Subsidies

Government interventions play a crucial role in promoting www.extensionjournal.com irrigation technologies. Schemes such as micro-irrigation subsidies and water conservation programs have significantly increased adoption rates in countries like India (PMKSY scheme). According to FAO (2017) [10] , policy support and financial incentives are essential to encourage farmers to shift from traditional to modern irrigation methods.

Climate Change and Irrigation Technologies

Climate variability, including irregular rainfall and increasing temperatures, has increased the importance of efficient irrigation systems. Smart irrigation technologies help farmers adapt to climate change by enabling precise and timely water application (Rodell et al., 2018) [20] .

Discussion

The findings of this review highlight the significant role of advanced irrigation technologies in enhancing water use efficiency and promoting sustainable agriculture. Drip irrigation emerges as the most efficient method, as supported by studies conducted by Fereres and Soriano (2007) [11] , who reported substantial improvements in both water savings and crop yield. Similarly, Postel et al. (2001) [19] emphasized that micro-irrigation systems can drastically reduce agricultural water consumption while maintaining productivity.

Smart irrigation systems represent a major advancement in irrigation management. According to Evans and Sadler (2008) [9] , the integration of sensors and real-time data enables precise water application, thereby minimizing wastage. However, the effectiveness of these systems largely depends on technological accessibility and farmer awareness, which remains a challenge in developing regions.

While sprinkler irrigation offers advantages in terms of uniform water distribution, studies by Dukes et al. (2010) [8] indicate that environmental factors such as wind speed and temperature can lead to considerable evaporation losses, reducing overall efficiency. From an environmental perspective, efficient irrigation technologies contribute to sustainable resource management. Tilman et al. (2002) [22] highlighted that improved irrigation practices can reduce environmental degradation by minimizing nutrient runoff and soil erosion. However, Rodell et al. (2018) [20] raised concerns regarding increased groundwater depletion due to the overuse of advanced irrigation systems, particularly in regions lacking proper regulation. Economically, the adoption of modern irrigation technologies is often constrained by high initial costs. Narayanamoorthy (2007) [17] noted that small and marginal farmers may face difficulties in adopting these technologies without institutional support or subsidies. Despite this, longterm benefits in terms of water savings and increased productivity make these technologies a viable option for sustainable agriculture. In addition to technological efficiency, the success of irrigation systems depends heavily on socio-economic and institutional factors. Studies by Kumar et al. (2018) [15] emphasize that farmer awareness, training, and access to extension services significantly influence the adoption of modern irrigation technologies. Without adequate capacity building, even highly efficient systems may fail to deliver expected outcomes. Furthermore, the integration of irrigation technologies with climate-resilient agricultural practices is becoming increasingly important. As highlighted by FAO (2017) [10] , sustainable water management requires a combination of efficient irrigation systems, crop diversification, and improved soil management practices. Another critical aspect is the long-term sustainability of water resources. While technologies such as drip and smart irrigation improve water use efficiency, their unregulated use may lead to increased groundwater extraction, as noted by Rodell et al. (2018) [15] . Therefore, proper monitoring and policy regulation are essential to ensure sustainable water use.

Conclusion

The present review clearly demonstrates that advancements in irrigation technologies play a pivotal role in enhancing water use efficiency, agricultural productivity, and environmental sustainability in the face of increasing water scarcity and climate variability. Among the various methods, drip irrigation emerges as the most efficient www.extensionjournal.com system, achieving substantial water savings and yield improvements, as supported by studies such as Elias Fereres and María A. Soriano (2007) [11] and Postel et al. (2001) [19] . Smart irrigation systems further strengthen water management through real-time monitoring and precision application, aligning with modern climate-resilient agricultural practices. In contrast, while sprinkler irrigation provides flexibility in uneven terrains, its efficiency is often constrained by environmental factors such as evaporation and wind drift (Dukes et al., 2010) [8] . The review also highlights the continued relevance of low-cost and indigenous technologies such as Jalkund and bamboo drip irrigation systems, particularly in the North Eastern Himalayan region. These systems not only enhance water availability during dry periods but also contribute significantly to livelihood security and sustainable ecosystem management (Ansari et al., 2020; Bhakta et al.; 2019 Agarwal & Narain, 1997) [1,2,3] . Despite the proven benefits, the adoption of modern irrigation technologies remains limited due to high initial investment costs, inadequate technical knowledge, and insufficient institutional support, especially among small and marginal farmers (Kumar et al., 2018; Narayanamoorthy, 2007) [15,17] . Furthermore, the risk of groundwater over-extraction associated with advanced irrigation systems underscores the need for proper regulation and sustainable water governance (Rodell et al., 2018) [20] . Therefore, the future of sustainable irrigation lies in an integrated approach that combines advanced technologies with traditional knowledge systems, supported by strong policy frameworks, financial incentives, and farmer capacity building. As emphasized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (2017) [10] , achieving long-term water sustainability requires not only technological innovation but also effective management practices and institutional support.

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