Comparative study of different pre-sowing treatments on seed germination of Acacia mangium

. Seed germination and growth occur in mature seeds. Seed germination increased with an increasing collection period (Netam et al., 2025). Nurseries provide the means to control moisture, light physical and chemical soil constituents in such a way as to produce healthy and uniform seedlings for planting. Several factors can influence seedling growth in the nursery (Nishad et al., 2025) [49] . Agroforestry is a comprehensive term encompassing land-use systems where woody perennials like trees, shrubs, and bamboos are cultivated alongside herbaceous plants such as crops, pasture, and/or livestock. These elements are organized spatially or temporally, facilitating ecological and economic interactions between the tree and non-tree components. The principal constituents of agroforestry systems include trees, shrubs, crops, pastures, and livestock, along with factors like climate, soil, and the surrounding environment (Bargah et al., 2024) [9] . These plants are utilized in agricultural practices, forestry, and agroforestry to enhance soil fertility (notably nitrogen levels), to capture carbon, and perhaps to rejuvenate nutrient cycles in distressed lands and woodlands. They are also valued for commercial wood production, decorative [13,30] . Seedlings are small plants with enough potential to grow into mature trees. These seedlings grow naturally, but they can also be propagated by seeding and germinating, which helps them to sprout quicker and boost their chances of survival. The factors must be optimal to produce a health and vigorous seedlings, and among them, the genes and the nursery environment determine to a large degree how a tree can survive (Minj et al., 2024). Plants are propagated and grown to a size that can be planted in a nursery. A quality nursery stock is necessary to create a good plantation. The necessity of forest nurseries in order toproperly nurture seedlings before planting them on land that needs to be replanted (Verma et al., 2024) Often, the growth of forests or crop production tends to improve in nitrogen-deficient areas when nitrogen-fixing species (NFS) like Australian Acacia are present (Binkley 1992 [17,18,29,40,44,45,53,54,63] . Most ofAustralia's Acacia have characteristics connected to invasiveness. Twenty-three species have been identified as invasive so far; some are important invasive species in several geographic areas (Richardson and Richardson et al. (2011) showed that all species that have been widely planted for forestry or other uses have become invasive when documenting the worldwide biogeography and invasion ecology of Australian Acacia. Many elements influence whether an exotic species turns invasive, including life-history features and the degree, level, and length of use of the species in the new surroundings. On Australian Acacia, a lot of study has been done in this regard. The degree of invasiveness for Acacia is explained by interactions between features, human use, and residence duration (Castro-Díez et al. 2011). Usually, there is a long delay between introduction and planting and the beginning of invasive spread; this results in a significant 'invasion debt' in many locations where the extensive planting of non-native species has recently taken place (Rouget et al. 2016) [20,33,55,56,57] . Among the Australian Acacia widely cultivated worldwide, Acacia mangiumclearly offers advantages in agricultural, agroforestry, and forestry ecosystems (Bernhard-Reversat 1993; Franco et al. 1994 [2] . Such invasions are lowering the general benefit from using the species and is generating conflicts of interest between (agro) foresters on the one hand and conservationists and natural resource managers on the other. Many temperate parts of the world where other Australian Acacia species (and other legume trees) have been grown outside their natural habitat are experiencing such conflicts. Many sectors are implementing management projects to lessen such conflicts (e.g. Kull [3] . Native to areas of Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Australia, AcaciamangiumWilld. Is a huge tree that can grow up to 30 m tall. The species creates many flowers, mostly pollinated by bees (Midgley and Turnbull 2003). It thrives in coastal, tropical lowlands (below 300 m in altitude) and across a spectrum of forest types (from rainforests to open forests), as well as in woodlands impacted by fire (Midgley and Turnbull 2003). The natural range of Acacia mangium overlaps with the warm and hot tropical climate zones, where temperatures are consistently high throughout the year. The mean maximum temperature during the hottest month typically falls between 31 ℃ and 34 ℃, and the mean minimum temperature during the coolest month ranges from 15 ℃ to 22 ℃ (Otsamoet al. 1997; Midgley and Turnbull 2003). With summer (January to March) being the wettest season, the mean annual rainfall throughout its natural range is between 1500 and 3000 mm. This fastgrowing species prefers well-drained soils of moderate to low fertility (Franco et al. 1994 [2] . But outside of their natural habitat, an extended dry season and sandy, nutrient-poor soils may cause growth during the first year (Koutikaet al. 2018). Similar to many other acacia species, Acacia. Mangium may develop on soils with ph under 4 (Franco and de Faria, 1997; Midgley and Turnbull 2003) and is suited to acidic soils. The advantages and risks of Acacia mangium in places where it is grown are examined in this study. Native range not with standing, the article explores whether it is practical to encourage planting of the species in order to maximize its benefits and lower existing and possible future negative repercussions from invasiveness [13,16,18,29,30,43,53,55,56,57,61] . Common names in other countries: black wattle, brown salwood, hickory wattle, mangium, sabahsalwood (Australia, England); mangium, kayu SAFODA (Malaysia); arr (Papua New Guinea); maber (Philippines); zamorano (Spain); kra thin tepa, krathin-thepha (Thailand).

Source: Alok Singh Bargah

Botanical Descriptions 3.1 Tree morphology

Acacia mangium is a kind of evergreen tree, up to 30 m tall. The bole can be unbranched for more than half of the total tree height. It is sometimes fluted at the base and the tree diameter rarely exceeds 50 cm. Bark is rough and furrowed, either grey or brown in color. Small branches are winged. It may be reduced to a small tree or large shrub of 7-10 m on unfavorable sites. The bark surface is rough, furrowed longitudinally, and varies in colour from pale grey-brown to brown. The lower bole is sometimes fluted. Detailed botanical description refers to Pedley (1975).

Leaves (phyllodes)

The mature phyllodes of Acacia mangium are very large, generally ranging from 11 to 27 cm in length and 3 to 10 cm in width. They are borne on strongly angled, glabrous, and sturdy branchlets. They are dark green and smooth, with a smooth pulvinus that is 0.6 to 1 cm long. The phyllodes are distinguished by four (occasionally three or five) major longitudinal nerves that are basally coalescent but distinct from the lower margin. Minor nerves profusely anastomosis to create a noticeable reticulum.

Growth phenology

A gland (extra floral nectary) is prominent. Given ideal circumstances, Acacia mangium may grow all year. In Thailand, it has been noted that in January-February, the mix of little rainfall and chilly temperatures causes growth to slow down or stop entirely. In April, trees begin to grow vigorously once more prior to the start of the wet season (Atipanumpai, 1989) [3] . [5] .

Flowering Phenology

Inflorescences, blooms, and fruits

The inflorescence, which is made up of many small flowers, appears as loose spikes up to 10 cm long, either alone or in pairs in the upper axils. The whitish (or cream) blossoms are found in loose spikes 5-12 cm long on peduncles 0.6-1 cm long, either singly or in pairs in the upper axils. The seed pods are linear, tightly coiled when ripe, occasionally tightly spirally coiled, somewhat woody, 7-8 cm in length, and 0.3-0.5 cm in breadth. The seeds are black and lustrous, longitudinal, ovate to oblong 3-5x2-3 mm with a yellow or vivid orange (occasionally red) funicle.

Reproductive Biology and Breeding System

Floral Biology Acacia mangium blossom has regular symmetry and has five sepals, five petals, many stamens, and one gynoecium. Particularly in the early morning when single blossoms are in bloom, its delicate and sweet aroma stands out. Zakaria 1993). Non-papillate, stigma has a diameter of 63 microns and forms a cup-shaped indentation at the apex of the style. Stigma and anthers share the same plane. The anther is bilobed and 183 microns in size. Every lobe contains four distinct loculi surrounding a polyad (composite pollen grains). The polyad has a diameter of 30 to 40 microns and is spherical in form; each polyad comprisessixteen pollens. There are around 113stamens every flower on average. Usually covered in small hairs, the ovary is sessile and contains 12 to 14 ovules each. Most flowers are hermaphroditic. In some inflorescence, however, staminate flowers are also found.

Seed Characteristics

Acacia mangiumare typically small to medium in size, elliptical to oval in shape, and hard, impermeable seed coat (testa), which is responsible for physical dormancy and protection against adverse environmental conditions. The seed coat is thick and contributes to long-term viability by preventing water imbibition under unfavorable conditions.

Studies have reported that Acacia mangiumseeds are generally dark brown to black and exhibit morphological adaptations such as a pleurogram, a characteristic feature of many Acacia species. (Hegde, M. Et al., 2013) [41] . Thick and hard seed coats reduce water permeability, requiring stronger treatments like scarification.

Baskin & Baskin (2004) [11] 2 Treatment Duration

Length of exposure to treatment (hot water, acid, etc.).

Insufficient duration leads to poor germination, while excessive duration may damage embryo.

Hartmann et al.

(2011) [38] 3 Temperature Temperature used during treatment or germination.

Optimal temperature enhances enzyme activity and germination; extreme temperatures may reduce viability. Baskin & Baskin (2004) [11] 6 Moisture Content Initial moisture level in seeds before treatment.

Proper moisture improves imbibition; too much or too little moisture affects germination negatively.

Bewley & Black (1994) [14] 7 Species Variation Genetic and physiological differences among species.

Different species respond differently to the same treatment method.

Baskin & Baskin (2004) [11] 8 Storage Conditions Conditions under which seeds are stored (temperature, humidity).

Poor storage reduces seed viability and treatment effectiveness. Hartmann et al.

Dormancy in Seed

Seed dormancy is a physiological condition that keeps a viable seed from germinating even when the circumstances are right for growth (Baskin and Baskin, 2004) [11] . The period of dormancy differs considerably between species, with some seeds retaining viability for months while others lose their capacity to germinate fast. Seeds are made up of an inner embryo that will grow into a plant and an outer protective shell. Water infiltrates the seed coat, causing it to swell and start the plant's development (Bargah et al., 2024) [9] .

Table 2: Types of Seed Dormancy

S.

Type of Dormancy Description Examples / Features Citations 1 Seed Dormancy

Seed dormancy is a physiological condition that prevents viable seeds from germinating even under favorable conditions. Dormancy period varies among species; some seeds remain viable for months while others lose viability quickly.

Water penetration through seed coat initiates swelling and germination.

General seed structure consists of embryo and protective seed coat.

Baskin & Baskin (2004); Bargah et al. (2024) [9,11] 2 Physiological Dormancy Dormancy caused by physiological factors within the embryo or surrounding tissues such as endosperm. Freshly matured seeds with non-deep physiological dormancy germinate only under limited temperature conditions.

Common in Fagus, Pinus, Eucalyptus.

Baskin & Baskin (2004) [11] 3

Morphological Dormancy

Occurs in seeds with underdeveloped embryos that require additional time for embryo growth before germination.

Seeds with immature embryos.

Kumar et al. (2024) 4 Physical Dormancy

Caused by impermeable seed coat due to thick-walled, cutinized macroscleroid cells preventing water uptake. Germination is promoted through scarification or hot water treatment.

Mechanical scarification, chemical scarification, boiling water soaking.

Baskin & Baskin (2004) [11] 6. [14,38,59] 3 [14,38,59] . [43] Ecology, uses, and invasiveness

Acacia mangium is a fast-growing multipurpose tree widely used in agroforestry and land restoration; improves soil fertility through nitrogen fixation but may become invasive in nonnative regions.

Growth characteristics and distribution

Species grows up to 30 m height; adapted to lowland tropical regions and acidic soils; suitable for plantation forestry.

Nirsatmanto (2016) [48] Effect of planting density on growth Planting density significantly influences early growth and development; improved seeds show better performance under optimized spacing.

4

Buvaneswaran & Navamaniraj (2024) [19] Seed and seedling variability Significant variation observed in seed traits and seedling growth, useful for selection and breeding programs.

5

Paramitha & Mardji (2015) [52] Nursery growth under different soils

Seedling growth varies with soil type; better performance observed in fertile and welldrained soils.

Nath et al. (1990); Venkatesh (2000) [46,62]

Germination and adaptability

Species shows high adaptability to acidic and infertile soils; widely used in social forestry and reforestation programs in India. Physiological growth (gravitropism)

Stem inclination affects growth behavior and tension wood formation, influencing structural stability.

8 Sun et al. (2025) [58] Tissue culture and bud induction Efficient bud induction achieved without certain nitrogen sources, supporting advanced propagation techniques.

Conclusion

The provided review explores the multi-faceted role of Acacia mangium, a fast-growing tropical legume that serves as a cornerstone for global agroforestry while posing significant ecological risks. While it is highly valued for its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, sequester carbon, and thrive in acidic, nutrient-poor soils (pH < 4), its aggressive adaptability has led to its classification as an invasive species in several continents, creating a phenomenon known as "invasion debt." A critical portion of the study focuses on overcoming the species' inherent physical seed dormancy caused by a thick, water-impermeable seed coat; research highlights that specialized pre-sowing treatments ranging from thermal (hot water) and mechanical scarification to chemical etching with $H_2SO_4$ and hormonal stimulation with Gibberellic Acid ($GA_3$) are essential to achieve high germination rates (up to 96%). Ultimately, the paper emphasizes the need for a balanced management approach that maximizes the economic and silvicultural benefits of Acacia mangium while mitigating the long-term biological invasion threats to native ecosystems.

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