Biochar and organic amendments for rehabilitating degraded soils

Introduction

Degraded soils those with degraded topsoil, poor organic matter, acidity, salinity, nutrient loss, or contamination threaten agricultural output and ecological services [1] . Up to one third of the world's soils are moderately to extensively deteriorate by intensive farming, misuse of chemical inputs, deforestation and climatic stress [2] . Reclamation of these soils is usually by increasing organic matter and enhancing fertility with sustainable additives. Two complimentary amendment techniques have received substantial interest: biochar and organic amendments (compost, manure, green manures, etc.) [2,3,4] . Biochar is a carbon-rich stable substance formed by pyrolysis of biomass (plant wastes, wood, dung, etc.) under low oxygen conditions. It is very porous and alkaline and may enhance the physical and chemical characteristics of soil and carbon sequestration. Important nutrients are supplied and microbial activity stimulated by organic amendments derived from agricultural and animal leftovers in Indian scenario [5,6] . Combining biochar with other organic materials may increase advantages in agriculture aspects. Biochar can stabilize nutrients and organic materials from compost/manure, minimize losses through leaching or denitrification and enhance soil water retention [7,8] . Co-application of labile organic materials (compost/manure) with biochar promotes priming of microbial processes and supplies the nitrogen and phosphorus required in the early stages of crop growth. This study describes current developments (2018-2026) in the use of these amendments in degraded soils [9,10] . We begin by describing the historical background and the major researchers in the discipline. Next we describe the characteristics of various biochar types (impact of feedstock) and kinds of organic additions (Table 1 and2) [11] . We summarize experimental evidence of crop responses to combination biochar+organic treatments in different soils (Table 3). A decision flowchart (see below) leads you through the choice of amendment depending on the particular soil problem (e.g. acidic pH vs. nutrient deficiency). Finally, we discuss economic and environmental trade-offs (Table 4) and conclude with practical suggestions for the use of biochar and organic amendments to restore damaged soils [12] . The addition of organic matter to soil is an old idea. Traditionally, early civilizations (e.g. in Asia, the Mediterranean) utilized animal excrement and plant remains to fertilize the soil. In more recent history, scientific awareness of organic amendments evolved in 18-20th centuries [13] . The roots of soil chemistry were formed in the 1800s by Johann Heinrich von Thünen and Justus von Liebig (Liebig notoriously prioritized mineral nutrients and actually downplayed the significance of "muck" against chemical fertilizers) [14] . In contrast, Sir Albert Howard (1873-1947) in his seminal book "An Agricultural Testament" of 1940 advocated composting and natural fertility, inspiring the modern organic farming movement (the Rodale Institute in the US and Lady Eve Balfour in the UK were early proponents of organic amendments in the 1930s-50s) [15,16] . In parallel, the discovery of the Amazonian "Terra Preta" (black earth) soils, which are rich anthrosols with charcoal and pottery shards, led to archaeological and agronomic attention. In the late 1960s, Brazilian researcher A. V. Sombroek discovered evidence of long-lasting rich soils with burnt organic residue, which showed that ancient indigenous Amazonians had produced Terra Preta [18] . The scientific study of biochar as a soil amendment is quite recent, starting in earnest in the 1990s-2000s. Key pioneers include Johannes Lehmann (Cornell University) who revived the notion of Terra Preta in agronomy and carbon sequestration and Bruno Glaser (Universities of Hohenheim/Bern) who explored the soil biochemical impacts of char (notably as "black carbon") [19] . Stephen Joseph and Stephen Z. Dong have developed pyrolysis engineering. Rattan Lal (Ohio State University) used biochar in studies on soil carbon cycling and climate change mitigation [20] . Prominent organic amendment researchers include Michel Lotter, Timothy Crews and Don Wischmeier, although many contributions come from agricultural extension and ecological agronomists across the globe. In summary, contemporary organic amendment proponents (Howard, Rodale, Balfour) and biochar researchers (Lehmann, Glaser, Joseph, Lal) represent a line of innovators committed to the sustainable replenishment of soil organic carbon and fertility [21] .

Properties and Production of Biochar

Biochar's characteristics depend heavily on feedstock type and pyrolysis conditions (Table 1). Woody biomasses (hardwood, softwood, coconut shells) pyrolyzed around 400-600 °C yield high-carbon chars (carbon content often 60-85%) with low ash (<5%) and neutral-to-alkaline pH [22] . They tend to have large surface area and microporosity, enhancing water retention and nutrient adsorption. In contrast, herbaceous residues (straws, grasses) produce biochars with higher ash content (10-30%), elevated pH (often >9 due to residual minerals) and more oxygen-containing functional groups (if pyrolysis is mild) [23] . Manure-based biochars (poultry, cattle, sewage) yield high-ash, high-mineral chars (often >20% ash, rich in phosphorus and potash) with very alkaline pH (up to ~11), but lower stable carbon content (often <40%) and yield. These nutrient-rich chars can supply N, P, K but may pose a salinity risk if overapplied [24] . Typical slow-pyrolysis (residence minutes to hours) yields range ~30-60% of feedstock mass, whereas fast pyrolysis yields less biochar (often <30%) but more bio-oil/gas [25] . In Table 1 (below), feedstocks are grouped by general category. "Production conditions" summarizes common pyrolysis methods (e.g. slow vs fast) and temperature ranges. Key biochar properties listed include approximate carbon content, ash content, pH and any special notes (e.g. nutrient levels or high silica in rice husk biochar) [26] . When data were not precisely available, entries are marked "unspecified" or given as a range. This table highlights, for instance, that hardwood biochars (oak, maple) typically have high carbon (70-85%) and low ash, while straw and husk biochars have moderate carbon (~50-60%) but high ash and alkali [27] . Animal-manure biochars are high-ash and alkaline, often providing available P and K. These property differences guide application decisions: e.g. manure-chars can act like slow-release fertilizers, whereas wood-chars mainly increase carbon and CEC [28] .

Table 1: Biochar feedstock categories, typical production conditions and resulting properties. Carbon (C) percentages and ash content are approximate ranges from literature. "pH" indicates biochar pH in water or CaCl₂ extract (carbonates raise pH) [29,30,31,32,33,34] Feedstock Type Typical Pyrolysis (Temp, Type, Yield) Key Biochar Properties Softwood (pine, spruce) 350-500 °C slow pyrolysis (30-50% yield) High C (~70-80%), low ash (<5%), pH ~68, large surface area, high porosity Hardwood (oak, maple) 400-600 °C slow pyrolysis (30-50% yield)

High C (65-85%), very low ash, pH ~67, very porous, stable carbon Wood chips/mixed wood 400-600 °C (slow pyrolysis) C ~60-80%, ash <5-10%, pH ~79 depending on wood type, good water retention Rice straw/wheat straw 300-500 °C (slow pyrolysis) C ~50-60%, ash ~15-30%, pH ~8-10, nutrient-rich ash (K, SiO₂), moderate surface area Maize (corn) stover 300-500 °C C ~45-55%, ash ~15-25%, pH ~8-10, moderate porosity, contains K and Ca in ash Nut shells (coconut, walnut) 500-700 °C (fast/slow pyrolysis) C ~75-85%, ash <5%, pH ~9-11, high hardness, high porosity, extremely low moisture Bamboo 400-700 °C C ~60-70%, ash ~5-15%, pH ~8-9, similar to wood charcoal but fibrous Rice husk 500-600 °C C ~45-55%, ash ~20-35% (rich in silica), pH ~79, very high silica content Poultry manure/litter 300-600 °C C ~20-40%, ash ~25-50%, pH ~8-11, high N-P-K content, low stability Cattle manure 300-600 °C C ~25-45%, ash ~15-30%, pH ~810, moderate N-P-K, high organic matter

Biochar properties

All biochars are rich in stable carbon, contributing to long-term soil carbon sequestration. Many have high cation exchange capacity (tens to hundreds of cmol_c/kg) after aging, especially those with oxygen-containing functional groups (often from moderate-temperature pyrolysis) [35] . Biochar's large surface area (often hundreds of m²/g) provides habitat for microbes and adsorption sites for nutrients and water. Ash content contributes liming effect and supplies Ca, Mg, P, K for instance, manure and straw biochars can supply substantial phosphorus and potassium when incorporated into soil. Biochars typically raise soil pH (especially high-ash types), which can ameliorate acidic soils. However, fresh biochar can also initially immobilize nitrogen (high C/N ratio) and absorb some nutrients until microbial community stabilizes [36,37] .

Organic Amendments: Types and Soil Effects Organic amendments encompass a wide range of materials derived from plant and animal residues. They are applied to provide nutrients, organic carbon and to improve soil structure and biology.

Table 2: lists major organic amendment types, typical application rates (on a dry-matter basis) and expected soil effects. Key categories include composts (stabilized organic wastes), raw manures, cover or green manures (ploughed-under crops, often legumes), crop residues (mulched or incorporated), biosolids and specialized amendments (vermicompost, bio-slurry) [33,34,35,36,37,38] . [39,40] . Together, compost, manure and crop residue incorporation are proven to raise soil organic carbon by several tons per hectare per year, improving fertility and physical properties. For example, addition of 10 t/ha compost can raise organic matter by ~0.31% in the topsoil, while cover crops supplying 100 kg N/ha can significantly reduce synthetic fertilizer needs [41] . Organic amendments also foster beneficial soil microbes (e.g. mycorrhizae, nitrogen-fixers) and earthworms, further enhancing fertility and structure. However, organic materials decompose relatively rapidly (years to decades) compared to biochar, so their carbon is less stable. Their high nutrient content (especially nitrogen) means rates are often set by crop nitrogen demand (e.g. 52.0 t/ha for manures supplying 100-200 kg N/ha).

Organic Amendment Type

Excessive rates risk nitrate leaching and greenhouse gas emissions (N₂O) [42,43] .

Biochar + Organic Amendment Synergy

Co-application of biochar with organic amendments tends to outperform either alone. In nutrient-poor, degraded soils this synergy is especially potent. Biochar's porous structure adsorbs and gradually releases nutrients from compost and manure, reducing leaching losses. It also buffers pH and provides habitat for decomposer microbes [44] . Meanwhile, labile carbon and nutrients from compost/manure feed soil biota and crops in the short term, bridging the gap until biochar's benefits accrue.

Many studies report that combined treatments improve plant growth more than either amendment alone, particularly in acidic, sandy or tropical soils [45] .

Crop Responses and Yield Changes (Biochar + Organic)

Table 3 summarizes representative field and greenhouse trials where biochar was co-applied with organic amendments (compost, manure, organic fertilizer) [46] . Most of these experiments involved degraded or low-fertility soils (acidic ultisols, sandy loams, or nutrient-depleted tropical soils). The observed yield changes (often grain or aboveground biomass) are reported relative to unamended controls or to organic amendment alone [47] . Many trials show strong yield gains from the combined treatments, especially in stressed soils:

• In an acidic tropical soil in Ethiopia, adding 5-20 t/ha of biochar-based fertilizer (biochar mixed with animal manure) to wheat increased grain yields by roughly 47-94% over the control (47% at 5 t/ha, 94% at 20 t/ha). These treatments dramatically outperformed inorganic fertilizer in this trial, underscoring biochar's value in tropical acid soils [48] .

• In a highly acidic Ultisol (pH ~3.6) in Indonesia, a one-time application of 20 t/ha rice-husk biochar to maize yielded an average 600% increase (67 times higher yield) compared to no amendment, sustained over seven cropping seasons. The large boost was attributed to biochar's liming effect (raising pH and reducing toxic Al³⁺) plus added K and P [49] .

• In a tropical Ferralsol with maize in Brazil, applying 10 t/ha biochar (wood-based) along with standard NPK fertilizer increased maize grain yield by about 29% compared to fertilizer alone. Compost application (25 t/ha) gave ~10% increase. Combined biochar+compost treatments yielded intermediate improvements (~20% or more), correlating with higher soil moisture and nutrient availability [50] .

In a temperate organic farm (loamy soil, Germany), annual co-composting of biochar (02 t/ha) with manure and grassclover compost raised winter spelt yields substantially. Manure-compost alone lifted spelt yield from 3.21 to 4.20 t/ha (+31%). With biochar added (up to 2 t/ha), yields remained high (5%) due to biochar in the compost [51] .

• In a sub-humid Kenya field trial (maize-soy rotation), repeated biochar applications (10-15 t/ha) over 10 years persistently increased cereal yields by ~10% relative to unfertilized plots, improving fertility of an otherwise infertile soil [52] .

• Several other studies in China and Australia on rice or cereals in alkaline or saline soils found that biochar+manure or biochar+compost generally boosted yields by 10-30%, though effects could be smaller in non-acidic soils. In many cases, biochar alone had little effect unless paired with organic N inputs [53] .

Not all trials show positive yield changes, some report neutral or slightly negative effects, especially in already fertile or neutral pH soils. For example, co-composted biochar slightly reduced spelt yields in the first year in the German trial (compared to compost alone), possibly due to initial N immobilization [54] . However, by the fourth year, small yield benefits emerged (consistent with soil organic carbon build-up). In sum, combined biochar+organic applications often yield +10-50% improvements (and occasionally much higher) in degraded soil contexts, while rarely harming yield [55] .

Table 3: Selected crop yield responses to combined biochar and organic amendments in degraded or low-fertility soils. Yield change is relative to unamended control (or sometimes organic alone) and expressed as% increase (bold indicates large gain) [56,57,58,59,60,61] .

Economic and Environmental Trade-offs

Both biochar production and organic amendments have costs, benefits and potential risks. Table 4 compares these factors. Costs: Biochar production requires pyrolysis equipment and energy, typical production costs are on the order of $200-$300 per ton of biochar (depending on scale and feedstock cost) [62] . Transport and application add to costs if done off-site. In contrast, many organic amendments (manure, crop residues) are locally available and low-cost, though there are still collection and spreading costs (e.g. $1050 per ton for compost) [63,78] . Carbon sequestration: Biochar is extremely stable, conservative estimates suggest global biochar deployment could sequester 0.71.8 Gt CO₂-equivalent per year (about 0.20.5 GtC/yr) [79,64] . On a per-hectare basis, biochar addition (e.g. 10 t/ha) can lock away several tons of carbon for centuries. Composts and manures also add carbon, but much of it gradually decomposes (though they do contribute short-to mid-term soil carbon gains). Some resources (peat) are carbon-rich but nonrenewable and thus not sustainable [80,65] . Co-benefits: Biochar adds water retention, nutrient holding capacity and supports microbial habitat. It can be manufactured from waste biomass (agri-waste, forestry residues), aiding waste management [66] . Organic amendments recycle local nutrients, reducing fertilizer inputs and improve soil fertility and biodiversity. Both can reduce greenhouse gas emissions from soils (e.g. biochar often lowers N₂O emissions, compost can reduce need for synthetic N). Risks: Biochar feedstocks must be sourced sustainably (cutting forests for biochar is not acceptable) [67] . Biochar made improperly (e.g. from contaminated waste or incomplete pyrolysis) can contain polyaromatic hydrocarbons or heavy metals. Some high-ash biochars (manure-derived) can raise soil salinity if overused. Organic amendments carry risks of nitrogen leaching, methane emissions (especially from anaerobic composting) and introducing pathogens or pollutants (notably in sewage sludge). Additionally, there can be trade-offs: investing in expensive biochar may divert resources from other soil management [68,69,70] .

Table 4: Summarizes these trade-offs qualitatively [71,72,73,74,75,76,77]

Amendment

Conclusion

Soil rehabilitation is significantly needed for sustainable agriculture. Many indicators of soil deterioration may be alleviated by the application of biochar and organic amendments in combination. Biochar offers stable carbon, boosts pH (in acidic soils) and stimulates water and nutrient retention in the soil. Organic inputs support the biology of plants and soil because they give easily accessible nutrients and labile carbon.

In tough to work soils they re-build the soil organic matter, enhance the structure and fertility of the soil and raise crop yields. The results of our investigation indicate that the combined biochar and organic treatments are consistently better than each amendment applied alone in deficient soils. In field experiments on damaged soils, combination treatments have frequently been shown to provide production increases of 10-50% or more. This is one of the most crucial results. The tropical acid and sandy soils are the ones that would benefit the most. Co-application greatly enhances the soil quality metrics including organic carbon, CEC, pH and moisture retention measurements. Increasing soil carbon stocks in the long term (typically 10 tons of carbon per hectare over a few years, as said) Custom amendment selection: alkaline biochars (or lime plus biochar) are best suited for severely acidic and alkalinetoxic soils. Legume green manures or manure-based compost are advised for nitrogen-deficient soils. Biochar may also be used in the composting process. Organic mulches and biochar may absorb salts and enhance the texture of saline soils. All these judgments are the responsibility of the mermaid flowchart. Scaling the production of biochar requires investments and legislation that support it (carbon credits, waste management incentives). On the other hand, organic additions tend to be more dependent on farm-level logistics. Co-products like biochar fertilizers (biochar enriched with manure or compost) might be a value source. Amendments need to be under strict monitoring and examination to ensure they are free of any harmful pollutants. In a word, the combined application of biochar and organic waste inputs is a successful technique for the regeneration of soil. It enhances productivity and via closure of nutrient cycles and carbon sequestration it also aids to mitigation of climate change. But there is not one universal method. The use of additives should be complemented by local trials, evaluation of regional biomass resources and integrated farm management (including crop rotations, decreased tillage and erosion control). There is a need for further long term field research in agroecological zones to determine the most efficient ways. Further study in the future should be carried out to further optimise dose-response relationships, create low-cost pyrolysis technologies and examine socio-economic adoption models. Recent research, however, makes it clear that the restoration of soils around the globe must incorporate biochar and conventional organic inputs.

References

1. Xia F, Zhang Z, Zhang Q, Huang H, Zhao X. Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions for various feedstocks-based biochars as soil amendment. Science of the Total Environment. 2024;911:168734.
2. Tang KHD. Urban solutions to climate change: An overview of latest progress. Academic Environmental Science and Sustainability. 2024;1.
3. Atilano-Camino MM, Canizales Laborin AP, Ortega Juarez AM, Valenzuela Cantú AK, Pat-Espadas AM. Impact of soil amendment with biochar on greenhouse gases emissions, metals availability and microbial activity: A meta-analysis. Sustainability. 2022;14:5648.
4. Xie Y, Dong C, Chen Z, Liu Y, Zhang Y, Gou P, et al. Successive biochar amendment affected crop yield by regulating soil nitrogen functional microbes in wheat-maize rotation farmland. Environmental Research. 2021;194:110671.
5. Li X, Wu D, Liu X, Huang Y, Cai A, Xu H, et al. A global dataset of biochar application effects on crop yield, soil properties and greenhouse gas emissions. Scientific Data. 2024;11:57.
6. Das SK, Ghosh GK, Mishra VK, Choudhury BU, Dutta SK, Hazarika S, et al. Utilizing dissimilar feedstocks derived biochar amendments to alter soil biological indicators in acidic soil of Northeast India. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery. 2023;13:10203-10214.
7. Pokharel P, Ma Z, Chang SX. Biochar increases soil microbial biomass with changes in extra-and intracellular enzyme activities: A global meta-analysis. Biochar. 2020;2:65-79.
8. Hajiboland R, Panda CK, Lastochkina O, Gavassi MA, Habermann G, Pereira JF. Aluminum toxicity in plants: Present and future. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation. 2023;42:3967-3999.
9. El-Naggar A, Lee SS, Rinklebe J, Farooq M, Song H, Sarmah AK, et al. Biochar application to low fertility soils: A review of current status and future prospects. Geoderma. 2019;337:536-554.
10. Purakayastha TJ, Bera T, Bhaduri D, Sarkar B, Mandal S, Wade P, et al. A review on biochar modulated soil condition improvements and nutrient dynamics concerning crop yields: Pathways to climate change mitigation and global food security. Chemosphere. 2019;227:345-365.
11. Leng L, Xu S, Liu R, Yu T, Zhuo X, Leng S, et al. Nitrogen containing functional groups of biochar: An overview. Bioresource Technology. 2020;298:122286.
12. Christel W, Bruun S, Magid J, Kwapinski W, Jensen LS. Pig slurry acidification, separation technology and thermal conversion affect phosphorus availability in soil amended with the derived solid fractions, chars or ashes. Plant and Soil. 2016;401:93-107.
13. Zhao B, O'Connor D, Zhang J, Peng T, Shen Z, Tsang DCW, et al. Effect of pyrolysis temperature, heating rate and residence time on rapeseed stem derived biochar. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2018;174:977-987.
14. Tomczyk A, Sokołowska Z, Boguta P. Biochar physicochemical properties: Pyrolysis temperature and feedstock kind effects. Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology. 2020;19:191-215.
15. Domingues RR, Sánchez-Monedero MA, Spokas KA, Melo LCA, Trugilho PF, Valenciano MN, et al. Enhancing cation exchange capacity of weathered soils using biochar: Feedstock, pyrolysis conditions and addition rate. Agronomy. 2020;10:824.
16. Salem TM, Refaie KM, Sherif AE-HE-GA-EL, Eid MAM. Biochar application in alkaline soil and its effect on soil and plant. Acta Agriculturae Slovenica. 2019;114:85-96.
17. Zhou R, Chen Z, El-Naggar A, Tian L, Huang C, Zhang Z, et al. Contrasting effects of rice husk and its biochar on N2O emissions and nitrogen leaching from Lei bamboo soils under subtropical conditions. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 2023;59:803-817.
18. Kaur N, Kieffer C, Ren W, Hui D. How much is soil nitrous oxide emission reduced with biochar application? An evaluation of meta-analyses. GCB Bioenergy. 2023;15:2437.
19. Yu H, Zou W, Chen J, Chen H, Yu Z, Huang J, et al. Biochar amendment improves crop production in problem soils: A review. Journal of Environmental Management. 2019;232:8-21.
20. Kołtowski M, Hilber I, Bucheli TD, Oleszczuk P. Effect of steam activated biochar application to industrially contaminated soils on bioavailability of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and ecotoxicity of soils. Science of the Total Environment. 2016;566-567:1023-1031.
21. Ippolito JA, Berry CM, Strawn DG, Novak JM, Levine J, Harley A. Biochars reduce mine land soil bioavailable metals. Journal of Environmental Quality. 2017;46:411-419.
22. Tang KHD, Kristanti RA. Bioremediation of perfluorochemicals: Current state and the way forward. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering. 2022;45:10931109.
23. O'Connor D, Peng T, Zhang J, Tsang DCW, Alessi DS, Shen Z, et al. Biochar application for the remediation of heavy metal polluted land: A review of in situ field trials. Science of the Total Environment. 2018;619-620:815-826.
24. Zama EF, Reid BJ, Arp HPH, Sun G-X, Yuan H-Y, Zhu YG. Advances in research on the use of biochar in soil for remediation: A review. Journal of Soils and Sediments. 2018;18:2433-2450.
25. Kumpiene J, Antelo J, Brännvall E, Carabante I, Ek K, Komárek M, et al. In situ chemical stabilization of trace element-contaminated soil-Field demonstrations and barriers to transition from laboratory to the field-A review. Applied Geochemistry. 2019;100:335-351.
26. Dai Z, Xiong X, Zhu H, Xu H, Leng P, Li J, et al. Association of biochar properties with changes in bacterial, fungal and fauna communities and nutrient cycling processes. Biochar. 2021;3:239-254.
27. Tsolis V, Barouchas P. Biochar as soil amendment: The effect of biochar on soil properties using VIS-NIR diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, biochar aging and soil microbiology-A review. Land. 2023;12:1580.
28. Zang H, Xiao M, Wang Y, Ling N, Wu J, Ge T, et al. Allocation of assimilated carbon in paddies depending on rice age, chase period and N fertilization: Experiment with 13CO2 labelling and literature synthesis. Plant and Soil. 2019;445:113-123.
29. Lu J, Luo Y, Huang J, Hou B, Wang B, Ogino K, et al. The effect of biochar on the migration theory of nutrient ions. Science of the Total Environment. 2022;845:157262.
30. Lewoyehu M, Kohira Y, Fentie D, Addisu S, Sato S. Water hyacinth biochar: A sustainable approach for enhancing soil resistance to acidification stress and nutrient dynamics in an acidic Nitisol of the Northwest Highlands of Ethiopia. Sustainability. 2024;16:5537.
31. Shi RY, Ni N, Wang RH, Nkoh JN, Pan XY, Dong G, et al. Dissolved biochar fractions and solid biochar particles inhibit soil acidification induced by nitrification through different mechanisms. Science of the Total Environment. 2023;874:162464.
32. Burgeon V, Fouché J, Garré S, Dehkordi RH, Colinet G, Cornelis JT. Young and century-old biochars strongly affect nutrient cycling in a temperate agroecosystem. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2022;328:107847.
33. Prajval V, Krishnamoorthi A, Thakur R, Ruchitha T, Kapoor M, Singh A, et al. From code to crop: How bioinformatics is transforming crop genomics in modern agriculture and bettering environment. Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology. 2024;27(4):27-49.
34. Singh A, Labanya GSR. Exploring the role of hydrogen in agriculture for machinery, biomass and reducing carbon footprints. Plant Archives. 2025;25(1):2852-2863.
35. Debnath P, Raj R. Optimizing functional genomics and application of root wounding and immersion for enhanced virus-induced gene silencing in plants: A comprehensive review. Plant Archives. 2025;25(1):3115-3126.
36. Krishnamoorthi A, Chaurasia J, Baidya BK, Singh A, Kumar V, Singh A. A comprehensive review on evolution, challenges of models, opportunities in urban farming practices in the world. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports. 2024;30(6):136-156.
37. Liu B, Li H, Li H, Zhang A, Rengel Z. Long-term biochar application promotes rice productivity by regulating root dynamic development and reducing nitrogen leaching. GCB Bioenergy. 2021;13:257-268.
38. dos Santos WM, Gonzaga MIS, da Silva AJ, de Almeida AQ. Improved water and ions dynamics in a clayey soil amended with different types of agro-industrial waste biochar. Soil and Tillage Research. 2022;223:105482.
39. Hadroug S, Jellali S, Jeguirim M, Kwapinska M, Hamdi H, Leahy JJ, et al. Static and dynamic investigations on leaching/retention of nutrients from raw poultry manure biochars and amended agricultural soil. Sustainability. 2021;13:1212.
40. Dubrovina I. Biochar has different effects on soil fertility and spring barley productivity in two boreal soils with contrasting textures. Agricultural Research. 2025.
41. Zhang K, Khan Z, Khan MN, Luo T, Luo L, Bi J, et al. The application of biochar improves the nutrient supply efficiency of organic fertilizer, sustains soil quality and promotes sustainable crop production. Food and Energy Security. 2024;13.
42. Schulz H, Dunst G, Glaser B. Positive effects of composted biochar on plant growth and soil fertility. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 2013;33:817-827.
43. Lu Y, Silveira ML, O'Connor GA, Vendramini JMB, Li YC. Biochar type and application methods affected nitrogen and phosphorus leaching from a sandy soil amended with inorganic fertilizers and biosolids. Agrosystems, Geosciences and Environment. 2022;5.
44. Lian F, Xing B. Black carbon (biochar) in water/soil environments: Molecular structure, sorption, stability and potential risk. Environmental Science and Technology. 2017;51:13517-13532.
45. Llovet A, Vidal-Durà A, Alcañiz JM, Ribas A, Domene X. Biochar addition to organo-mineral fertilisers delays nutrient leaching and enhances barley nutrient content. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science. 2023;69:25372551.
46. Raghuvanshi HR, Kalaiselvi P, Ravindra NR, Kumar V. Biotechnological breakthroughs: Paving the path to cleaner and more productive agriculture through bioremediation. Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology. 2024;27(4):119-142.
47. Bhardwaj R, Kumar M, Kaushal N, Kamboj AD, Krishnamoorthi A, Singh A, et al. From lab to bouquet: The biotechnological frontier in modern floriculture for sustainable and resilient flower farming. Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology. 2024;27(2):119137.
48. Jain S, Ranganna G, Jadhav PS, Shrivastava U, Sood A, Prasad L, et al. Cultivating tomorrow: Harnessing gene editing and silencing for precision horticulture. Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology. 2024;27(1):147160.
49. Krishnamoorthi A, Salam NK, Kalaiselvi D, KB C, Kumar S, Kumar V, et al. Digital sequencing information in agricultural crops: A comprehensive review. International Journal. 2024;8(8):1404-1412.
50. Rimpika, Anushi, Manasa S, Anusha KN, Sharma S, Thakur A, et al. An overview of precision farming. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change. 2023;13(12):441-456.
51. Jain S, Bhujel S, U, Mohapatra A, Mishra G. Advancements in drone technology for fruit crop management: A comprehensive review. 2023.
52. Anushi AK, Ghosh PK. From seed to succulence: Mastering dragon fruit propagation techniques. Journal of Plant Biota. 2024.
53. Sarfraz R, Nadeem F, Yang W, Tayyab M, Khan MI, Mahmood R, et al. Evaluation of biochar and inorganic fertilizer on soil available phosphorus and bacterial community dynamics in acidic paddy soils for different incubation temperatures. Agronomy. 2024;14:26.
54. Ndoung OCN, Souza LRd, Fachini J, Leão TP, Sandri D, Figueiredo CCd. Dynamics of potassium released from sewage sludge biochar fertilizers in soil. Journal of Environmental Management. 2023;346:119057.
55. Yin X, Peñuelas J, Sardans J, Xu X, Chen Y, Fang Y, et al. Effects of nitrogen-enriched biochar on rice growth and yield, iron dynamics and soil carbon storage and emissions: A tool to improve sustainable rice cultivation. Environmental Pollution. 2021;287:117565.
56. Suksabye P, Pimthong A, Dhurakit P, Mekvichitsaeng P, Thiravetyan P. Effect of biochars and microorganisms on cadmium accumulation in rice grains grown in Cdcontaminated soil. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2016;23:962-973.
57. Wang M, Lan X, Xu X, Fang Y, Singh BP, Sardans J, et al. Steel slag and biochar amendments decreased CO2 emissions by altering soil chemical properties and bacterial community structure over two years in a subtropical paddy field. Science of the Total Environment. 2020;740:140403.
58. Joseph S, Husson O, Graber ER, Van Zwieten L, Taherymoosavi S, Thomas T, et al. The electrochemical properties of biochars and how they affect soil redox properties and processes. Agronomy. 2015;5:322-340.
59. Javeed HM, Ali M, Ahmed I, Wang X, Al-Ashkar I, Qamar R, et al. Biochar enriched with buffalo slurry improved soil nitrogen and carbon dynamics, nutrient uptake and growth attributes of wheat by reducing leaching losses of nutrients. Land. 2021;10:1392.
60. Roy A, Chaturvedi S, Singh SV, Kasivelu G, Dhyani VC, Pyne S. Preparation and evaluation of two enriched biocharbased fertilizers for nutrient release kinetics and agronomic effectiveness in direct-seeded rice. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery. 2024;14:2007-2018.
61. Anushi BPS, Sachan K. Bioformulation: A new frontier in horticulture for eco-friendly crop management. Journal of Plant Biota. 2024.
62. Anushi, Tripathi VK. Influence of biostimulants and organic mulch on physiological, biochemical and yield attributes of strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Dutch.) cv. Katrain Sweet. Plant Science Today. 2025;12(3):1-9. doi:10.14719/pst.5994
63. Anushi, Tripathi VK, Shukla P. Influence of biostimulants and organic mulch on soil microbial population in strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Dutch.). Biochemistry and Cellular Archives. 2024;24:2551-2555. doi:10.51470/bca.2024.24.2.2551
64. Tripathi VK, Kumar S, Tripathi R, Singh A. Impact of biostimulants and organic mulch on vegetative growth, flowering and yield of strawberry cv. Katrain Sweet. doi:10.21276/AATCCReview.2025.13.03.118
65. Lan Y, Chu Q, Liu X, Xu S, Li D, Zhang C, et al. Oxygennanobubble-loaded biochar increases soil carbon sequestration in rice paddies. Soil and Environmental Health. 2025;3:100174.
66. Deng L, Tu P, Ahmed N, Zhang G, Cen Y, Huang B, et al. Biochar-based phosphate fertilizer improve phosphorus bioavailability, microbial functioning and citrus seedling growth. Scientia Horticulturae. 2024;338:113699.
67. Mandal S, Donner E, Smith E, Sarkar B, Lombi E. Biochar with near-neutral pH reduces ammonia volatilization and improves plant growth in a soil-plant system: A closed chamber experiment. Science of the Total Environment. 2019;697:134114.
68. Zhang J, Ye L, Chang J, Wang E, Wang C, Zhang H, et al. Straw soil conditioner modulates key soil microbes and nutrient dynamics across different maize developmental stages. Microorganisms. 2024;12:295.
69. Khan Z, Zhang K, Khan MN, Bi J, Zhu K, Luo L, et al. How biochar affects nitrogen assimilation and dynamics by interacting soil and plant enzymatic activities: Quantitative assessment of 2 years potted study in a rapeseed-soil system. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2022;13:853449.
70. Gong X, Cai L, Li S, Chang SX, Sun X, An Z. Bamboo biochar amendment improves the growth and reproduction of Eisenia fetida and the quality of green waste vermicompost. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2018;156:197-204.
71. Elzobair KA, Stromberger ME, Ippolito JA, Lentz RD. Contrasting effects of biochar versus manure on soil microbial communities and enzyme activities in an Aridisol. Chemosphere. 2016;142:145-152.
72. Yan H, Cong M, Hu Y, Qiu C, Yang Z, Tang G, et al. Biochar-mediated changes in the microbial communities of rhizosphere soil alter the architecture of maize roots. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2022;13:1023444.
73. Lehmann J, Rillig MC, Thies J, Masiello CA, Hockaday WC, Crowley D. Biochar effects on soil biota-A review. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 2011;43:1812-1836.
74. Li X, Wu M, Xue Y. Nickel-loaded shrimp shell biochar enhances batch anaerobic digestion of food waste. Bioresource Technology. 2022;352:127092.