Edible insect: Emerging non-convectional source of protein -A Review

Introduction

The population of the world is increasing continuously according to the recent study the population of the world reached to 9 billion by 2025 which results in increasing demand of quality food. Along with the population rise, problems like climate change, excessive fishing practice, limited land for agricultural practices, etc. challenges the food and feed security (Gnana Moorthy Eswaran et al. 2022) [9] . The demand of protein is increasing now a days due to its health benefits. The awareness of population on protein rich diet and healthy lifestyle leads to increase in demand of protein rich food (Henchion et al., 2017) [14] . The value of global protein ingredient market is USD 38 billion in 2019 and it is expected to rise at the rate of 9.1% from 2021 to 2027 (Ismail et al. 2020) [16] . The convectional sources of protein are meat, eggs, fish, dairy, pulses and cereals. Meat is one of the excellent sources of protein along with vitamins and minerals which is consuming worldwide. Meat contains all the essential amino acid needed for healthy body and have high net protein utilization and digestibility. The protein content in raw meat is 20-25% and in cooked it is 28-36%. But the over consumption of meat increases the risk of cardio vascular diseases to human. The greenhouse gases are also emitted in livestock production which adversely affect the environment (Henchion et al., 2017) [14] . The chicken eggs are superior source of dietary protein. Protein is the main component of all the three parts of egg i.e. egg shell, egg white and egg yolk. Egg white is a major source of protein. The egg protein is high in nutritional quality and comprises of all the essential amino acid needed for development of human body. Egg protein have excellent digestibility. Egg white contain more than 50 proteins (Guha et al. 2019) [11] . The 100g of edible whole egg contain 12.58g of protein, 9.94g of fat, 0.86g of ash and 0.77g of carbohydrate (Li-Chan and Kim, 2008) [19] . The pulses and cereals are major source of protein for vegetarian and vegan population. Pulses contain approximately10% moisture, 20-25% crude protein, 1-1.5% lipid, 60-65% carbohydrate and 2.5-4% ash. The pulses like soyabean and lupin are exception it contains up to 45-50% of Protein. The cereals are one of the important food which we consume daily. Wheat, rice and maize are the major cereals which globally consume in larger quantity and from which we get our dietary protein. Compared to other cereals oat has higher amino acid content and high quality of protein.

Oats has high lysine content and low proline and glutamic acid content which make it an ideal choice for people having allergies and gluten intolerance problem. The concern of the vegan and plant base protein diet is nutrient deficiency due to unbalance protein source. Plant does not contain all the essential amino acid unlike animal base food. Pulses and cereals are deficient in essential amino acid content needed for human body. Pulses are deficient in sulphur containing amino acid, it also contains inti-inflammatory components such as hydrolase inhibitors and lectins which are the part of defensive mechanism of the seed and able to inhibit several biological functions in body (Henchion et al., 2017) [14] . The milk majorly contributes the human nutrition, the bovine milk contains more than 200 types of protein. Along with the protein milk is also high in minerals like calcium, potassium, magnesium and sodium. Milk is rice in fat soluble vitamin like vitamin A, D, E and K (Mehta, 2015) [22] . The milk protein has higher digestibility and biological value. The milk protein is easily absorbed and utilized by human body (Rafiq et al. 2016) [31] . But many people are lactose intolerance due to which they are not able to drink milk (Swagerty et al. 2002) [37] . The insect is a non-convectional source of protein, it is alternative source of nutritious food. The future demand of food needed novel and environmentally friendly food, the insect is one of the ideal source for it. Insects are important nutritious food due to its high and valuable protein content (Mezes, 2018) [23] . Entomophagy has been practiced from thousands of years in the countries like Africa, Asia and some parts of Australia. Insect species which are majorly consume are crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, bees, beetles, wasps, ants, cicadas, caterpillars, termites, dragonflies, and flies. Insects are excellent source of protein because it contains all essential amino acid. Depending on the insect species, their life cycle stage the protein content of insect varies, it can range from 50% to 75% (dry basis). Along with protein insect also contains carbohydrate, lipids, minerals and vitamins (Liceaga, 2019) [18] . Edible insect has adequate amounts of vitamins like pantothenic acid, riboflavin, biotin and folic acid and minerals including iron, copper, magnesium, phosphorus, selenium, manganese and zinc (Gnana Moorthy Eswaran et al. 2022) [9] .

Edible insects and their diversity

Edible insects are insects that are consumed by humans as food or used in animal feed due to their high nutritional value and sustainability. The practice of eating insects, known as entomophagy, has been followed for centuries in many regions of Asia, Africa, Latin America, and parts of Oceania. More than 2,000 insect species are reported to be edible worldwide, providing an important source of proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. Edible insects belong mainly to several insect orders, including Coleoptera (beetles), Lepidoptera (caterpillars and silkworms), Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets), Hymenoptera (bees, ants, and wasps), Hemiptera (true bugs), Diptera (flies), and Isoptera (termites). Among these, beetles represent the largest proportion of edible insect species consumed globally. Crickets, mealworms, grasshoppers, silkworm pupae, and black soldier fly larvae are among the most commercially important edible insects (Rumpold, and Schlüter, 2013) [32] . Different insect species vary considerably in nutritional composition, taste, texture, and functional properties. For example, Acheta domesticus and Gryllus bimaculatus are valued for their high protein content, while Tenebrio molitor larvae are rich in lipids and essential fatty acids. Silkworm pupae contain bioactive peptides and minerals, whereas black soldier fly larvae are widely used in animal feed and waste bioconversion (Hunter, 2021) [15] . The diversity of edible insects is influenced by geographical location, cultural practices, climate, and biodiversity. Traditional communities often collect insects seasonally from forests and agricultural lands, while modern insect farming technologies now enable controlled large-scale production. Increasing interest in sustainable food systems, environmental conservation, and alternative protein sources has accelerated global research and commercialization of edible insects. Their diversity and adaptability make them promising resources for future food and feed security (Payne et al. 2016) [28] .

Nutritive value of insects

Insect species used for human consumption are known as edible insects or insects as food. However, insect protein is said to have enhanced nutritional value because it contains all the Essential Amino Acids (EAAs), including Leu, Ile, Lys, Met, Thr, Trp, Phe, and Val, and the amount of EAAs is higher than the adult's daily FAO requirement for amino acids. Legume proteins have been widely used in many commercial food products. (Van Huis et al. 2013) [38] . The nutritional composition of insect given below in Table No 1 [12] Dung [6] AOAC USA, (1975) [2] short [7] mopane worm Lepidoptera (Gonimbrasia belina)

Dry insect Powder

Crude Protein-56.95±0.04 Crude Fat-10.0±0.2 Ash-7.0±0.6 Carbohydrates-7.8±0.5 [35] speckled emperor Lepidoptera (Gynanisa maja) Powder

Siulapwa et al.(2014)

Crude Protein-55.92 ± 0.04 Crude Fat-12.1±0.2 Ash-7.4±0.4 Carbohydrates-10.7±0.3 [35] East 2014) [35] Termites 2014) [35] Extraction methods 1. Alkaline extraction: Alkaline extraction is the most commonly used method for insect protein recovery. In this process, defatted insect powder is mixed with an alkaline solution such as NaOH at pH 9-11. Under alkaline conditions, proteins become soluble and can later be precipitated at their isoelectric point (pH 4-5). This method provides high protein yield and is suitable for industrialscale production. However, very high pH may cause partial protein denaturation (Yi et al. 2013) [40] .

Siulapwa et al.(2014)

𝑝𝐻 ≈ 9 -11 → protein solubilization, 𝑝𝐻 ≈ 4 -5 → protein precipitation

Aqueous extraction:

Aqueous extraction uses water as the extraction medium to dissolve soluble proteins from insects. The insect powder is mixed with water, stirred, and centrifuged to separate proteins. This method is simple, ecofriendly, and inexpensive, but the protein recovery is generally lower compared with alkaline extraction (Stone et al. 2019) [36] .

Acid extraction:

In acid extraction, proteins are extracted under acidic conditions, usually at pH 2-4. Acid helps dissolve certain proteins that are soluble in low pH conditions. This method is useful for specific protein fractions, although the overall extraction efficiency is lower than alkaline extraction (Bußler et al.2016) [5] .

Supercritical CO₂ extraction:

Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction is mainly used for defatting insects before protein extraction. CO₂ under high pressure behaves like both liquid and gas, effectively removing lipids without leaving toxic solvent residues. It is considered a green extraction technology (Rumpold and Schlüter 2013) [32] .

Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE):

Microwaveassisted extraction uses microwave energy to rapidly heat insect tissues and improve protein diffusion into the solvent. This method is fast and energy efficient, but excessive heating may damage proteins (Pereira et al. 2023) [29] .

Fig 1: Extraction methodology flow chart

The flowchart illustrates the complete process of insect protein extraction and purification from edible insects such as mealworms, crickets, silkworm pupae, and black soldier fly larvae. The process begins with an insect fasting period of 24-48 hours before processing. Fasting helps to empty the digestive tract of insects, thereby reducing microbial contamination, removing unwanted gut materials, and improving the cleanliness and quality of the final protein product. This preliminary step is important for producing safe and hygienic insect-derived protein ingredients. After fasting, the insects undergo pre-treatment of raw material. In this stage, insects are dried using methods such as oven drying, freeze drying, microwave drying, or sun drying to reduce moisture content and prevent spoilage. The dried insects are then ground into fine powder and sieved to obtain a uniform particle size. Proper pre-treatment increases the efficiency of extraction by improving solvent penetration and protein release from insect tissues. The next step is defatting, which removes lipids present in insects because high fat content can interfere with protein extraction and reduce protein purity. Several methods are used for defatting, including organic solvent extraction using hexane or ethanol, aqueous extraction, supercritical CO₂ extraction, mechanical pressing, three-phase partitioning, and high Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP). Defatting improves protein concentration, enhances storage stability, and increases the functional properties of insect proteins. Following defatting, protein solubilization is performed. In this stage, the defatted insect powder is mixed with suitable solvents or buffers to dissolve proteins. Protein solubility depends on factors such as pH, temperature, extraction time, and ionic strength. Efficient solubilization is essential because it directly affects the amount of protein that can be recovered during extraction (Yi et al. 2013) [40] . The flowchart then presents four major protein extraction methods: alkaline extraction, aqueous extraction, acid extraction, and salt extraction. Among these, alkaline extraction is the most commonly used industrial method because it provides high protein yield. In alkaline extraction, proteins are solubilized at alkaline pH values around 9-11 and later precipitated near their isoelectric point at pH 4-5. Aqueous extraction uses water as the extraction medium and is considered simple, economical, and environmentally friendly, although the protein yield is usually lower. Acid extraction is carried out under acidic conditions (pH 2-4) and is useful for extracting certain acid-soluble proteins. Salt extraction uses salt solutions such as sodium chloride or ammonium sulfate to improve protein solubility and recover salt-soluble proteins while maintaining their functional properties. After extraction, the soluble protein-containing liquid known as the supernatant is separated from insoluble residues through supernatant recovery processes. Techniques such as centrifugation, dialysis, and ultrafiltration are commonly used. Centrifugation removes insoluble materials, dialysis removes salts and small molecules, and ultrafiltration concentrates the proteins and improves purity. These steps are important for obtaining high-quality protein fractions suitable for food and industrial applications. The recovered proteins then undergo protein purification to further enhance purity and functionality. Purification techniques shown in the flowchart include ion exchange chromatography, reversed-phase chromatography, affinity chromatography, and gel filtration chromatography. These methods help separate proteins based on charge, size, hydrophobicity, or specific binding properties. Protein purification is especially important when producing protein isolates, bioactive peptides, or nutraceutical ingredients (Bußler et al.2016) [5] . After purification, the proteins are subjected to the final drying process to convert them into stable protein powder. Common drying methods include oven drying, fluidized bed drying, microwave drying, spray drying, and freeze drying. Drying reduces moisture content, prevents microbial growth, and extends shelf life. Freeze drying is particularly useful because it preserves nutritional quality and protein functionality. Finally, the dried insect protein powder is packaged and stored under cool and dry conditions in airtight containers to prevent moisture absorption and oxidation. Proper storage maintains protein quality, nutritional value, and shelf stability for long-term use. Overall, the flowchart demonstrates a systematic approach for producing high-quality insect protein suitable for applications in food products, animal feed, nutraceuticals, and sustainable protein industries (Stone et al. 2019) [36] . The different extraction methods used for protein extraction was given below in 2020) [24] Rhynchophorus phoenicis aqueous extraction method pH 9.0-10.0 Yield (54%) Mba et al.( 2021) [21] Tenebrio molito Alkaline extraction method pH alkaline Yield (59.9%) Azagoh et al.( 2016) [3] Cricket Protein extract (NaOH) Protein extract (Ascorbic acid) 61.75% (NaOH) 69.69% (Ascorbic acid) Amarender et al.( 2020) [1] Cricket (Acheta domesticus) Alkaline solubilization Ratio 1: 50 cricket powder: 0.5 M NaOH, stir for 60 min; 2 mL of mixture are withdrawn at 15 min intervals and centrifuged (10 000g, 10 min at 20 °C).

The supernatant was isolated and stored at 4 °C.

Yield (63.49%) Machado et al.(2022) [20] Gryllus bimaculatus

Ultrasound extraction method

Ratio -1: 16 defatted insect coarse meal: distilled water containing 9.46 mM ascorbic acid, sonication was carried out for 20 min on ice at 20 kHz with a 75% AMP and pulsed every 3 sec. Then the aliquots were collected at 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, and 20 min. Samples were sieved through a stainless-steel filter (pore size of 1 mm) and filtrates were collected and freeze-dried.

Choi et al.( 2017) [8] (Tenebrio molitor, L.)

Alkaline solubilization method

Deionized water was added to a concentration of 600 g L -1 and the slurry was mixed for 60 s, pH 10.5 and stirred for 2 hour, then centrifuged (4000g, 10 min). The supernatant fraction was separated, frozen at -30 °C and freeze-dried at 0.2 mbar for 72 hour.

Yield (58.7%) Purschke et al.(2018) [30] Factors [40] .

Functional properties of insect proteins

Insect proteins possess several important functional properties that make them suitable ingredients for food formulations and nutraceutical applications. [40] . Insect proteins also demonstrate good emulsifying properties due to their ability to stabilize oil water interfaces. This characteristic is useful in processed foods such as sausages, bakery products, beverages, and protein supplements. In addition, insect protein concentrates have shown appreciable foaming capacity and foam stability, making them useful in aerated food systems. Water-holding and oil-holding capacities are essential for improving texture, juiciness, and flavor retention in food products.

Mealworm and cricket proteins have shown high oil-binding capacities because of their hydrophobic amino acid composition. Furthermore, insect proteins can form gels under suitable heating and pH conditions, contributing to texture development in meat analogues and functional foods. The functional behavior of insect proteins can be modified by processing techniques such as ultrasonication, fermentation, enzymatic treatment, and defatting. These modifications improve their techno-functional performance and broaden their industrial applications. Due to their favorable nutritional profile and functional characteristics, insect proteins are increasingly considered promising alternatives to conventional animal and plant proteins in sustainable food systems (Yang et al., 2025) [39] .

Food application and regulations

Human food applications are the ultimate higher-value use for mass-produced insects and insect-based substances. In addition, due to their high protein content and bioavailability, they can and have been used as fish and animal feed. In addition, the feed industry is arguably the first industry to utilise insect proteins extensively, followed by uses in human food. Insect proteins used in food must have a functional primary component (protein) that contributes to the product's safety, processing viability, flavour, texture, digestion, nutritional value, and product stability during storage. The ingestion of whole insects in fried or roasted forms is primarily found in Africa, Latin America, and East Asia in the past, suggesting that the use of whole insects is largely adapted to local taste and culture (Lamsal et al., 2019) [17] . Edible insect active compounds offer a wide range of favourable functional benefits on human health. Tumour suppression, immunomodulation, antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, management of blood glucose and lipids, lowering of blood pressure, regulation of gut bacterial flora, and cardiovascular protection are only a few of the benefits of insects.

Researchers are particularly interested in the anti-cancer impact because it is one of the most significant effects of functional chemicals in insects. Many of the edible insects' ingredients have anti-cancer properties. Activated peptides, active proteins, trace elements, vitamins, chitosan, and other compounds are a few examples (Zhou et al., 2022) [41] .

In addition to the many nutrients that edible insects provide, care must be taken to avoid the endogenous and exogenous risks associated with eating insects. Some insects are not safe to eat or are not edible, much like with food from plants and animals. Examples of endogenous risk factors include allergies and antinutrient compounds (Rumpold and Schluter, 2013) [32] . Microorganisms that are connected to insects may affect how safe they are to eat. The hygienic parameters of the substrate and surroundings, namely the raising conditions, have an impact on the presence of harmful microorganisms. On farms or in the wild, pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria (Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Campylobacter, Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Acinetobacter, Proteus, Escherichia, and other spore-forming bacteria), viruses, fungi, and protozoa can infect the insects (Mezes, 2018) [23] . Oxalate, tannin, phytate, and thiaminases are just a few examples of the toxins and antinutrients that must be taken into account while choosing insect species that are fit for human consumption. According to whether they are ingested by the insect from the feed or produced by the insect itself, toxins and antinutrients should be separated. The appropriate food safety regulations should be followed while creating insect rearing conditions. Therefore, it is important to maintain insects chosen for use in the production of food and food ingredients in a way that prevents or minimises the buildup of poisons, medicines, or antinutrients brought from the outside. Insect (glyco) proteins, which include the allergens found in insect venom (such as phospholipase A and hyaluronidase), are the major allergenic structures in insects. These are primarily ubiquitous or "pan-allergenic" proteins that, in a nutshell, fall into the categories of enzymes (such as arginine kinase, triosephosphate isomerase, -amylase, trypsin, phospholipase A, and hyaluronidase) and cellular proteins (such as tubulin) as well as circulating proteins (such as hemocyanin and defensin). Although there hasn't been a comprehensive research of the many stages of insect development up to this point, around half of the entries in the arthropod database now deal with allergens in insects. Therefore, it is uncertain how much an insect's developmental stage influences its allergenicity. The different food applications of insect proteins was given below in Table No 3. [34] Meat Analogues & Hybrid Meat Products Insect proteins are mixed with plant or meat proteins in burgers, sausages, nuggets, and patties.

Crickets, mealworms

Improves texture, protein enrichment, and reduces environmental impact.

Yang et al. 2025 [39] Pasta & Noodles Insect flour is added to pasta and noodles to enrich protein and micronutrients.

Mealworms, crickets

Enhances protein quality and essential amino acid profile. Extruded Foods Insect proteins are used in puffed snacks and extruded cereals.

Mealworms, crickets

Improves texture, protein enrichment, and product functionality.

Gravel and Doyen, (2020) [10] Functional Foods

Insect-derived peptides are incorporated into nutraceutical and health foods.

Silkworm pupae, crickets

Antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, and bioactive properties.

Yang et al. 2025 [39] Safety and allergenicity of edible insects Edible insects are increasingly recognized as sustainable alternative protein sources; however, their safety and allergenicity remain important concerns for food applications. [27] .

Environmental and economic importance of edible insects

Edible insects are gaining global attention because of their environmental sustainability and economic potential as alternative protein sources. Compared with conventional livestock production, insect farming requires less land, water, and feed while producing lower greenhouse gas emissions. These advantages make edible insects promising contributors to sustainable food systems and global food security. Insects possess high feed conversion efficiency, meaning they can convert feed into body mass more effectively than cattle, pigs, or poultry. For example, crickets require significantly less feed and water to produce the same amount of protein as traditional livestock.

Additionally, many edible insects can be reared on agricultural by-products and organic waste streams, thereby reducing environmental pollution and supporting circular bioeconomy practices (Halloran et al. 2016) [13] .

Greenhouse gas and ammonia emissions from insect farming are substantially lower than those from conventional livestock. Insect cultivation also requires minimal land area, helping reduce deforestation and habitat destruction associated with animal agriculture. Furthermore, insects reproduce rapidly and have short life cycles, enabling efficient large-scale production with relatively low resource consumption. From an economic perspective, the edible insect industry is expanding rapidly due to increasing demand for sustainable proteins in food, feed, pharmaceutical, and nutraceutical sectors. Insect farming offers income-generation opportunities for rural communities, small-scale farmers, and entrepreneurs. The production of insect-based protein powders, snacks, animal feeds, and functional foods has created new commercial markets worldwide (Oonincx, and De Boer, 2012) [25] . The use of insect meal in aquaculture and poultry feed is particularly important because it can partially replace expensive soybean meal and fishmeal. This substitution may reduce feed costs and dependence on limited natural resources. Moreover, advancements in processing technologies, automation, and regulatory approvals are supporting industrial-scale insect production. Despite these advantages, challenges such as consumer acceptance, legislation, standardization, and large-scale processing remain barriers to commercialization. Nevertheless, edible insects have strong potential to contribute to sustainable agriculture, environmental conservation, and economic development in the future. Future challenges in insect protein research include improving consumer acceptance, ensuring food safety and allergen control, developing standardized and cost-effective extraction methods, enhancing functional and sensory properties, increasing shelf life and storage stability, and achieving large-scale commercial production. Additional challenges involve establishing international regulations, improving microbiological quality control, optimizing green extraction technologies, evaluating environmental sustainability, studying protein digestibility and bioavailability, and developing innovative insect-based food products with better market acceptance. Further research is also needed for efficient utilization of insect processing byproducts and increasing public awareness about the nutritional and environmental benefits of insect proteins (Yi et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2025) [39,40] .

Conclusion

Edible insect is one of the best non convectional source of protein which contains all the essential amino acid along with the fat, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals. Edible insect protein is one of the source by which we can satisfy the continuously rising demand of protein of the new world. Edible insect protein has many application in food as well as feed. Along with its benefits and application in food it also has concerns regarding to the food safety. Edible Insects also contain toxins, allergens, antinutrients and microbial load which can harm the health badly. The removal of toxins, allergens, antinutrients and microbes are essential before its application. Further study is required on the Edible insect protein for its safely consumption and application in food and feed products.

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