Effect of organic cultivation practices on growth, yield and grain quality of foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) under rainfed condition of Dheardun region

plant development. Using these organic materials together creates a well-balanced nutritional program and establishes optimal growing conditions for crops. In rainfall-dependent agricultural systems where water availability remains restricted and variable, organic amendments become essential for enhancing soil water conservation and building crop resistance to stress (Yadav & Rai, 2020) [21] . This research was therefore conducted to assess how various organic farming methods influence the growth performance, productivity, and economic viability of foxtail millet cultivation (Patil & Sheelavantar, 2019) [23] . The experiment titled "Effect of Organic Cultivation Practices on Growth, Yield and Grain Quality of Foxtail Millet (Setaria Italica L.) Under Rainfed Condition of Dehradun Region." was done with the following objectives:

• To study the impact of organic nutrient management on grain quality parameters of foxtail millet.

• To analyze the economics of different organic treatments applied to foxtail millet cultivation. • To study the impact of organic nutrient management on the growth parameters of foxtail millet. • To evaluate the overall seed yield of foxtail millet under various organic nutrient management practices.

Materials and Methods

The experimental site sits at coordinates 30.3° N and 78.0° E, positioned about 640 meters above sea level. This area experiences a subtropical climate with gentle winters and moderate precipitation levels, creating favourable conditions for growing foxtail millet without irrigation. (IISWC, Dehradun) Weather patterns throughout the growing season (November 20, 2025 to February 25, 2026) varied considerably and had a major impact on how the crop developed (IISWC, Dehradun).

Temperatures followed a typical pattern, dropping from November through January before rising again in February. When planting began, daytime highs reached 26.5 °C while nighttime lows dropped to 7.0 °C. Throughout November, daily maximums fluctuated between 24.0 °C and 29.5 °C, with minimums ranging from 9.5 °C down to 3.5 °C. December brought cooler conditions, with highs between 18.0 °C and 25.6 °C and lows spanning 2.0 °C to 7.5 °C (IISWC, Dehradun). January proved to be the chilliest month overall, recording a low of -0. Researchers gathered soil samples from five randomly selected spots at 15 cm depth using a soil auger. They combined these samples into one representative sample, allowed it to air dry, crushed it, and filtered it through a 2 mm screen. They used 5 grams of this processed soil to analyse its physical and chemical characteristics and nutrient content.

Experimental Details

The study followed a Randomized Block Design format, incorporating 10 different treatments across 3 replications for a total of 30 individual plots. Individual plot dimensions were set at 3.0 m × 2.0 m, while the complete experimental area measured 33.0 m × 8.0 m.

Treatments T1:

Vermicompost @ 5 t ha⁻¹ T2: Farmyard Manure (FYM) @ 5 t ha⁻¹ T3: Beejamrut @ 500 ml ha⁻¹ (seed treatment) T4: Vermicompost @ 5 t ha⁻¹ + Jeevamrut @ 600 L ha⁻¹ @ 600 L ha⁻¹ T5: Farmyard Manure @ 5 t ha⁻¹ + Jeevamrut @ 600 L ha⁻¹ T6: Jeevamrut @ 600 L ha⁻¹ + Beejamrut @ 500 ml ha⁻¹ T7: Vermicompost @ 2.5 t ha⁻¹ + Farmyard Manure @ 2.5 t ha⁻¹ T8: Vermicompost @ 2.5 t ha⁻¹ + Farmyard Manure @ 2.5 t ha⁻¹ + Jeevamrut @ 600 L ha⁻¹ T9: Jeevamrut @ 600 L ha⁻¹ T10: Control 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Growth Parameters Plant height serves as a crucial measure of how well crops are growing and their nutritional condition. Throughout this research, we observed steady increases in plant height from 30 days after sowing until harvest time in all treatment groups, which suggests healthy crop development. The various organic nutrient management approaches resulted in notable differences between treatments.

When measured at 30 days after sowing, plant heights varied from 40.6 cm in treatment T₆ to 53.2 cm in treatment T₈. By 60 days after sowing, heights had grown considerably, with T₈ reaching the peak at 83.7 cm, followed by T₄ at 79.4 cm and T₅ at 77.1 cm. The control group showed the smallest height at 58.4 cm. This pattern persisted through harvest, where T₈ achieved the tallest plants at 87.8 cm while T₁₀ recorded the shortest at 57.5 cm. Treatment T₈'s exceptional results using vermicompost, farmyard manure, and Jeevamrut likely stem from the combined benefits of better nutrient access, improved soil structure, and increased microbial activity (Kumar et al., 2020) [9] . Vermicompost delivers nutrients and growth regulators that plants can use immediately, farmyard manure enhances soil texture and water retention, and Jeevamrut boosts the breakdown of nutrients (Sharma et al., 2019) [18] . The control treatment performed poorly because of insufficient nutrients and limited biological activity in the soil. Tiller development plays a vital role in determining cereal yields since it directly affects how many productive panicles form. Tiller numbers grew from 30 to 60 days after sowing, then decreased slightly by harvest as older tillers naturally died off. At the 30-day mark, tiller counts ranged from 2.4 in T₁₀ to 3.9 in T₈. By 60 days, T₈ produced the most tillers at 7.1, with T₄ and T₅ following at 6.5 and 6.2 respectively, while the control group had the fewest. At harvest time, T₈ kept the highest count of productive tillers at 6.0, compared to just 3.7 for the control.

The increased tiller production in T₈ results from well-balanced nutrition and better soil conditions. Vermicompost supplies vital nutrients and compounds that promote growth, farmyard manure supports root development by improving soil structure, and Jeevamrut stimulates microbial activity while making nutrients more available. Nitrogen is especially important for tiller formation since it encourages cell division and vegetative development (Subedi et al., 2019) [43] . The drop in tiller numbers by harvest occurs because plants compete internally, eliminating weaker tillers and keeping only the productive ones (Zhang et al., 2025) [5] . Dry matter buildup shows total biomass production and connects directly to how efficiently plants photosynthesize and absorb nutrients. Our study found that dry matter accumulated consistently as the crop progressed through growth stages.

At 30 days after sowing, dry matter values spanned from 4.7 g per plant in T₁₀ to 8.2 g per plant in T₈. This increased dramatically by 60 days, with T₈ achieving the highest amount at 28.4 g per plant, followed by T₄ at 25.8 g and T₅ at 24.9 g. The greater dry matter production in T₈ comes from the combined benefits of organic inputs working together. Vermicompost boosts nutrient availability and plant function, farmyard manure helps soil hold moisture and supports root growth, and Jeevamrut encourages microbial activity and nutrient cycling. These elements work together to enhance photosynthesis and biomass development (Singh et al., 2020) [12] . The control treatment showed less dry matter because nutrients were scarce and plant processes were less active (Verma et al., 2022) [11] . [20] , resulting in better growth and yields. The reduction at harvest happens naturally as leaves age and nutrients move to developing grains (Kumar et al., 2023) [22] .

Yield Attributes and Parameters

The length of panicles serves as a crucial factor in determining yield for foxtail millet, as it has a direct impact on how spikelets develop and the total number of grains produced. This research revealed notable differences between the various treatments tested. Treatment T₈ achieved the longest panicles at 21.2 cm, with T₄ and T₅ following closely at 19.5 cm and 19.1 cm respectively. On the other end, T₁₀ produced the shortest panicles, measuring only 13.8 cm. The exceptional results from T₈ demonstrate how well the combination of vermicompost (VC), farmyard manure (FYM), and Jeevamrut (JM) works together. This blend of organic inputs provided steady nutrient availability while improving soil quality, boosting beneficial microorganism activity, and supporting essential plant processes such as cell division and growth (Murugesan et al., 2025) [31] .

Better photosynthesis rates and increased availability of plant compounds also contributed to longer panicle development (Chandana et al., 2024) [49] . [50,52] . In comparison, the control plots suffered from inadequate nutrients, which hampered pollination success and grain production. Test weight indicates both grain quality and how well the grainfilling process works. T₈ achieved the heaviest test weight at 2.91 grams, followed by T₄ at 2.78 grams and T₅ at 2.72 grams. T₁₀ recorded the lightest weight at just 2.18 grams. The superior test weight in T₈ results primarily from increased photosynthetic efficiency, improved movement of nutrients to developing grains, and more complete grain filling (Gogoi et al., 2025) [54] . Organic amendments boosted plant metabolism, made nutrients more accessible, and helped soil retain moisture, creating conditions for steady grain development (Nadekar et al., 2024) [53] . Essential trace elements from organic materials also supported enzyme function and sugar storage in grains. By contrast, inadequate nutrition in control plots weakened photosynthesis and prevented grains from filling completely, producing lighter, less developed grains. Grain yield represents the combined outcome of all growth and production factors. Treatment T₈ achieved the best results with 24.8 q ha⁻¹, while T₄ and T₅ produced 22.6 q ha⁻¹ and 21.9 q ha⁻¹ respectively. The poorest performance came from T₁₀ at 13.9 q ha⁻¹. The exceptional productivity of T₈ resulted from better plant development, increased tiller production, superior dry matter buildup, and improved yield characteristics. Using integrated nutrient management enhanced soil health, boosted microbial processes, and increased nutrient accessibility (Sun et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2025) [1,5] , which promoted more effective photosynthesis and better distribution of plant resources. Providing nutrients in proper balance created efficient connections between nutrient sources and storage sites, supporting optimal grain development (Yang et al., 2024) [35] . Meanwhile, the control plots suffered from inadequate soil conditions and insufficient nutrients, which restricted both plant growth and final yields. Straw yield reflects the overall biomass production and vegetative development of the crop. Treatment T₈ produced the highest straw yield at 45.5 q ha⁻¹, with T₄ and T₅ following at 42.7 q ha⁻¹ and 41.9 q ha⁻¹ respectively. The poorest performance came from T₁₀, which yielded only 29.4 q ha⁻¹. The superior straw production in T₈ resulted from improved vegetative development, greater plant height, and more tiller formation. The application of organic materials enhanced the soil's physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, which promoted better nutrient absorption and biomass development (Verma et al., 2024; Meena et al., 2024) [29,47] . Enhanced photosynthetic activity and improved water retention capacity also contributed to stronger growth. By comparison, the control plots demonstrated limited biomass production because of insufficient nutrient supply, compromised soil structure, and diminished microbial activity.

Quality parameters

Grain protein quality, hydration capacity, and functional properties are significantly reflected through sedimentation values. This study revealed considerable variation in sedimentation values across different treatments, demonstrating how organic nutrient management affects grain quality.

Treatment T₈ (VC + FYM + Jeevamrut) achieved the highest sedimentation value, with T₄ (VC + JM) and T₅ (FYM + JM) following closely behind, while the control treatment (T₁₀) showed the poorest results.

The exceptional results from T₈ stem from the synergistic effects of combining vermicompost, FYM, and Jeevamrut, which creates a balanced and sustained nutrient supply, especially nitrogen (Ma et al., 2024) [3] . Since nitrogen is crucial for protein synthesis, it directly affects grain composition and sedimentation characteristics (Zhang et al., 2024) [40] . Vermicompost delivers easily accessible nutrients and growth-enhancing compounds, FYM enhances soil structure and nutrient holding capacity, while Jeevamrut boosts microbial activity and nutrient release. Enhanced nutrient absorption and microbial processes in integrated treatments promote protein buildup, resulting in improved hydration and sedimentation characteristics. The control treatment's poor performance reflects inadequate nutrient availability, diminished microbial activity, and restricted protein formation. This demonstrates that integrated organic nutrient management substantially enhances grain functional quality.

Starch content represents a crucial quality factor that affects the nutritional value, cooking characteristics, and processing attributes of foxtail millet. This research showed significant differences in starch content between treatments. Treatment T₈ (VC + FYM + JM) produced the highest starch content, with T₄ and T₅ ranking second, while the control (T₁₀) recorded the lowest levels.

The elevated starch content in T₈ results from enhanced photosynthetic performance, superior nutrient access, and increased metabolic processes (Liu et al., 2021) [38] . Using vermicompost, FYM, and Jeevamrut together enhances soil fertility, expands leaf surface area, and improves light capture, which leads to greater carbohydrate formation and storage in grains (Zhang et al., 2024) [40] . Vermicompost delivers vital nutrients and growth hormones, FYM enhances soil water retention and physical properties, while Jeevamrut stimulates microbial processes and nutrient transformation. Sufficient nitrogen and phosphorus supply additionally supports carbohydrate processing and starch formation. The control treatment's reduced starch content reflects nutrient limitations, decreased photosynthetic activity, and suboptimal soil conditions. Therefore, integrated organic nutrient management considerably improves starch development and overall grain quality.

Conclusion

Our research findings show that combining different organic nutrient sources greatly improved how foxtail millet grew, produced grain, and generated profits when grown without irrigation. Treatment T₈, which used (@ 2.5 t ha⁻¹) of vermicompost along with (@ 2.5 t ha⁻¹) of farmyard manure and Jeevamrut, delivered the best results. This combination produced the tallest plants, most tillers, highest dry matter content, best yield characteristics, and greatest grain production. When farmers applied vermicompost, farmyard manure, and Jeevamrut together, the soil became more fertile with better nutrient access and increased microbial life, leading to stronger crop growth. Key yield factors like panicle length, the number of grains per panicle, and grain weight all showed significant improvements with these combined organic treatments.

The financial analysis confirmed that using integrated nutrient management generates more profit than applying single inputs or no inputs at all. Treatment T₈ delivered higher net profits and maintained a positive benefit-to-cost ratio. These organic approaches not only boost crop productivity but also promote long-term farming sustainability by enhancing soil quality and reducing harm to the environment. We therefore recommend using vermicompost, farmyard manure, and Jeevamrut together as a practical and profitable method for growing foxtail millet.

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