Nano-fertilizers in sustainable crop production: Mechanisms, agronomic efficiency and environmental implications

Introduction 1.1 Global Food Security Challenges

Global agriculture is facing serious challenges due to rapid population growth, declining soil fertility, climate change, and increasing food demand. The global population is projected to exceed 9.7 billion by 2050, creating pressure on agricultural systems to enhance productivity while maintaining environmental sustainability (Pudhuvai et al., 2025) [12] . However, shrinking arable land, water scarcity, and soil degradation continue to limit agricultural production. Continuous monocropping and excessive use of chemical fertilizers have reduced soil fertility and disrupted ecosystem balance. Moreover, large nutrient losses through leaching, runoff, denitrification, and volatilization reduce nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, eutrophication, and groundwater contamination (Verma et al., 2023) [22] . Therefore, sustainable and efficient nutrient management strategies are urgently required for future food security.

Limitations of Conventional Fertilizers

Conventional fertilizers have played a major role in improving global crop productivity; however, their excessive and long-term use has created serious environmental and agronomic problems. Low nutrient use efficiency (NUE), particularly in nitrogen fertilizers, leads to significant nutrient losses through leaching, runoff, volatilization, and gaseous emissions (Pudhuvai et al., 2025) [12] . These losses reduce fertilizer efficiency and increase environmental pollution. Excessive fertilizer use also contributes to eutrophication, groundwater contamination, greenhouse gas emissions, and soil degradation. Moreover, continuous application of chemical fertilizers may disturb soil microbial activity, increase soil acidity, and negatively affect longterm soil fertility and crop quality (Arora et al., 2024) [2] . Therefore, sustainable nutrient delivery systems with improved efficiency and lower environmental impact are urgently needed.

Emergence of Nano-Fertilizers

Recent advances in nanotechnology have led to the development of nano-fertilizers as innovative tools for sustainable nutrient management in agriculture. Nano-fertilizers are nutrient formulations engineered at the nanoscale (1-100 nm) that improve nutrient availability, uptake efficiency, and controlled nutrient release within plant-soil systems (Channab et al., 2024) [3] . Due to their high surface area, enhanced reactivity, and improved mobility, nano-fertilizers interact more efficiently with plant tissues and soil particles than conventional fertilizers. These properties help synchronize nutrient release with crop demand, thereby reducing nutrient losses and improving nutrient use efficiency (Verma et al., 2023) [22] . Consequently, nanofertilizers are increasingly considered promising components of precision agriculture and climate-smart farming systems for sustainable crop production.

Nano-Fertilizers Matter

Nano-fertilizers have received significant attention due to their potential to improve nutrient management, crop productivity, and environmental sustainability. Their controlled and targeted nutrient release reduces nutrient losses through leaching, volatilization, and fixation, thereby enhancing nutrient use efficiency and lowering fertilizer requirements (Channab et al., 2024) [3] . Nano-fertilizers also improve important physiological processes such as photosynthesis, chlorophyll synthesis, enzymatic activity, and antioxidant defense mechanisms. In addition, they help plants tolerate abiotic stresses including drought, salinity, and temperature extremes (Arora et al., 2024) [2] . Integration of nano-fertilizers with precision agriculture and smart farming technologies may further support sustainable and climate-smart crop production. However, concerns regarding nanoparticle toxicity and long-term environmental impacts still require detailed investigation.

Research Gaps, Novelty and Scope

Despite increasing research on nano-fertilizers, important gaps still remain regarding long-term field performance, environmental safety, soil microbe interactions, and nanoparticle toxicity. Most previous studies have mainly focused on shortterm crop responses under controlled conditions, while limited attention has been given to ecological risks and regulatory concerns associated with large-scale agricultural application (Channab et al., 2024) [3] . Earlier reviews also emphasized synthesis methods and yield improvement without integrating nutrient use efficiency (NUE), precision agriculture, sustainability, and environmental implications within a single framework. [12] ; Verma et al., (2023) [22] Nutrient delivery Rapid nutrient release often exceeds crop demand

Slow and controlled nutrient release synchronized with crop requirement

Improved nutrient uptake and fertilizer efficiency Channab et al., (2024) [3] Environmental impact

Causes eutrophication, groundwater contamination, and greenhouse gas emissions

Reduces nutrient losses and environmental pollution

Supports environmentally sustainable agriculture Arora et al., (2024) [2] ; Pudhuvai et al., (2025) [12] Soil health Excessive application may degrade soil quality and microbial diversity

Better interaction with soil-plant systems and microbial activity Improved soil fertility and rhizosphere functioning Arora et al., (2024) [2] Crop productivity Imbalanced nutrient supply may limit growth and yield Enhances plant growth, photosynthesis, and nutrient absorption Increased crop productivity and yield stability Verma et al., (2023) [22] ; Channab et al., (2024) [3] Stress tolerance Limited effectiveness under drought, salinity, and heat stress Enhances antioxidant activity and stress-responsive mechanisms Improved abiotic stress tolerance Arora et al., (2024) [2] Precision agriculture compatibility Limited compatibility with modern precision farming systems Suitable for sensor-based and smart nutrient management Supports precision and climate-smart agriculture Channab et al., (2024) [3] Sustainability potential

High fertilizer consumption and ecological risks

Lower fertilizer requirement with higher efficiency

Promotes sustainable crop production systems Pudhuvai et al., (2025) [12] ; Arora et al., (2024) [2]

Methodology 2.1 Literature Search Strategy

A systematic literature search was conducted using major scientific databases including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar. Relevant peer-reviewed articles related to nano-fertilizers, nutrient use efficiency, sustainable agriculture, controlled nutrient release, and precision farming were collected using different keyword combinations. Recent studies published in high-impact journals were mainly considered to ensure scientific quality and reliability (El-Saadony et al., 2024) [7] .

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies included in this focused on nano-fertilizer synthesis, nutrient delivery mechanisms, crop productivity, soil-plant interactions, and environmental impacts. Both laboratory and field studies were considered. Non-English articles, duplicate studies, conference abstracts without full data, and nonagricultural nanotechnology studies were excluded from the review (Khan et al., 2022) [8] .

Time Range of Literature

The mainly includes scientific literature published between 2020 and 2026 to cover recent developments in nano-fertilizer research. Older studies were included only when necessary for basic scientific background. Recent publications were prioritized because they provide updated information on sustainable nutrient management and precision agriculture applications (Sharma et al., 2024) [20] .

Data Analysis Approach

The collected studies were analyzed using bibliometric trends, thematic categorization, and comparative evaluation methods.

The literature was grouped into major themes such as synthesis methods, nutrient release mechanisms, agronomic efficiency, environmental implications, and future prospects. Comparative analysis was also performed to evaluate the effectiveness of nano-fertilizers compared to conventional fertilizers under different agricultural conditions (Raliya et al., 2023) [15] .

Literature search strategy

Scientific literature was collected from Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar using keywords related to nano-fertilizers, nutrient use efficiency, precision agriculture, and sustainable crop production.

To gather recent, high-quality, and relevant scientific information related to nano-fertilizers.

El-Saadony et al., (2024) [7] Inclusion criteria

Studies focusing on nano-fertilizer synthesis, nutrient delivery mechanisms, crop productivity, soil-plant interactions, environmental sustainability, and stress tolerance were included. Both laboratory and field studies were considered.

To ensure scientific relevance and comprehensive evaluation of nanofertilizer applications in agriculture.

Khan et al., (2022) [8] Exclusion criteria

Non-English articles, duplicate studies, conference abstracts without complete data, unpublished reports, and studies unrelated to agricultural nanotechnology were excluded.

To maintain scientific accuracy, reliability, and quality of the reviewed literature.

Khan et al., (2022) [8] Time range of literature Literature published between 2020 and 2026 was mainly considered, while older foundational studies were included selectively.

To emphasize recent developments and emerging research trends in nanofertilizer technology.

Sharma et al.,

(2024) [20] Bibliometric analysis

Publication trends, research growth, and emerging scientific themes related to nano-fertilizers were analyzed.

To identify current research progress and major scientific focus areas.

Rani et al., (2025) [16] Thematic categorization Literature was categorized into synthesis methods, nutrient release mechanisms, agronomic efficiency, environmental implications, and future prospects.

To organize and critically evaluate the available scientific information systematically.

Raliya et al., (2023) [15] Comparative evaluation Nano-fertilizers were compared with conventional fertilizers under different crops and environmental conditions.

To assess the effectiveness of nanofertilizers in improving nutrient use efficiency and sustainability.

Raliya et al., (2023) [15] PRISMA framework PRISMA guidelines were followed for systematic identification, screening, and selection of relevant studies.

To improve transparency, reproducibility, and scientific credibility of the review process.

Sharma et al.,

Classification and Types of Nano-Fertilizers 3.1 Macronutrient Nano-Fertilizers

Macronutrient nano-fertilizers mainly supply essential primary nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) in nano-scale formulations to improve nutrient use efficiency and crop productivity. Nano-nitrogen fertilizers enhance nitrogen availability and reduce nutrient losses caused by volatilization and leaching. Nano-phosphorus fertilizers improve phosphorus solubility and availability in soils where phosphorus fixation is a major problem. Similarly, nanopotassium fertilizers support water regulation, enzyme activation, and stress tolerance in plants through gradual nutrient release mechanisms (Verma et al., 2023) [22] . Nano-scale nutrient delivery systems possess high surface area and enhanced reactivity, which facilitate efficient nutrient absorption and controlled release according to crop demand. These properties significantly improve nutrient uptake efficiency and reduce excessive fertilizer application in agricultural systems (Raliya et al., 2023) [15] .

Micronutrient Nano-Fertilizers

Micronutrient nano-fertilizers are designed to supply trace elements such as zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn), which are essential for various physiological and biochemical processes in plants. Nano-zinc fertilizers improve enzyme activity, chlorophyll synthesis, and grain quality, while nano-iron fertilizers enhance photosynthesis and metabolic activities. Nano-copper and nano-manganese fertilizers play important roles in enzymatic reactions, antioxidant defense, and stress tolerance mechanisms (Khan et al., 2022) [8] . The nano-formulation of micronutrients improves nutrient solubility, mobility, and bioavailability within plant systems. These fertilizers also minimize nutrient fixation in soil and enhance nutrient translocation to different plant tissues, thereby improving crop growth and productivity under nutrientdeficient conditions (El-Saadony et al., 2024) [7] .

Nano-Composite Fertilizers

Nano-composite fertilizers are advanced nutrient formulations prepared by combining nutrients with nanomaterials such as polymers, zeolites, biochar, or clay minerals. These composite structures improve nutrient stability, adsorption capacity, and controlled nutrient release behavior. Nano-composite fertilizers help synchronize nutrient release with plant nutrient demand, thereby reducing nutrient losses and enhancing fertilizer efficiency (Chen et al., 2024) [4] . nano-composite formulations improve soil moisture retention, nutrient availability, and rhizosphere interactions. Their multifunctional properties make them suitable for sustainable agriculture and precision nutrient management systems under diverse agroecological conditions (Mahapatra et al., 2025) [9] .

Nano-Encapsulated Fertilizers

Nano-encapsulated fertilizers are nutrient formulations in which nutrients are enclosed within nano-scale coating materials or carriers. The encapsulation process allows slow and targeted nutrient release, minimizing nutrient leaching and volatilization losses. These fertilizers enhance nutrient delivery efficiency and prolong nutrient availability in soil plant systems (Duhan et al., 2023) [6] . Nano-encapsulation technology also protects nutrients from premature degradation and improves nutrient uptake under adverse environmental conditions. Such controlled release behavior supports precision agriculture and sustainable nutrient management by reducing excessive fertilizer consumption and environmental pollution (Zhao et al., 2024) [23] .

Bio-Nano Fertilizers

Bio-nano fertilizers integrate nanotechnology with beneficial microorganisms or bioactive compounds to improve nutrient availability and plant growth. These fertilizers combine nanomaterials with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, biofertilizers, or organic substances to enhance nutrient solubilization, microbial activity, and plant nutrient uptake (Arora et al., 2024) [2] . Bio-nano fertilizers improve soil biological health, root development, stress tolerance, and nutrient cycling processes. Their environmentally friendly nature and reduced ecological risks make them promising alternatives for sustainable and climate-smart agriculture (Rahman et al., 2025) [13] . [22] Nano-P fertilizer Phosphorus (P) Nano-hydroxyapatite Increased phosphorus solubility and mobility

Better root growth and phosphorus uptake Raliya et al., (2023) [15] Nano [6] Bio-nano fertilizer Multiple nutrients Nanoparticles with beneficial microbes

Enhanced microbial activity and nutrient solubilization

Improved soil health and sustainable crop production Arora et al., (2024) [2]

Synthesis and Formulation Approaches 4.1 Physical Methods

Physical synthesis methods are widely used for the production of nano-fertilizers due to their simplicity and rapid nanoparticle formation. Common physical approaches include ball milling, ultrasonication, laser ablation, evaporation-condensation, and thermal decomposition techniques. These methods mainly reduce bulk fertilizer materials into nano-sized particles through mechanical or physical processes without altering their chemical composition (Duhan et al., 2023) [6] . Physical methods provide better control over particle size distribution and surface characteristics, which improve nutrient release behavior and nutrient uptake efficiency. However, some techniques require high energy consumption and expensive instrumentation, which may limit their large-scale agricultural application. Despite these limitations, physical synthesis remains important for the preparation of stable and uniform nano-fertilizer formulations suitable for precision nutrient management (Khan et al., 2022) [8] .

Chemical Methods

Chemical synthesis methods are among the most commonly used approaches for nano-fertilizer production because they allow precise control over nanoparticle composition, morphology, and stability. These methods involve chemical reactions such as precipitation, solgel synthesis, hydrothermal synthesis, co-precipitation, and chemical reduction techniques (Chen et al., 2024) [4] . Chemical methods enable the development of highly reactive and efficient nano-scale nutrient formulations with improved nutrient availability and controlled release properties. Nano-fertilizers synthesized through chemical approaches often exhibit higher solubility, enhanced surface activity, and better plant absorption efficiency compared to conventional fertilizers. However, the use of toxic chemicals and generation of hazardous by-products during synthesis may create environmental and safety concerns if not properly managed (Zhao et al., 2024) [23] .

Biological or Green Synthesis

Biological or green synthesis has recently emerged as one of the most promising and environmentally sustainable approaches for nano-fertilizer production. This method utilizes biological materials such as plant extracts, algae, fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms for nanoparticle synthesis under eco-friendly conditions (Arora et al., 2024) [2] . Green synthesis methods are gaining increasing attention because they minimize toxic chemical use, reduce environmental pollution, and improve the biocompatibility of nano-fertilizers. Biologically synthesized nanoparticles generally exhibit better environmental safety, enhanced stability, and lower toxicity compared to chemically synthesized nanoparticles. In addition, microbial-mediated synthesis can improve nutrient solubilization and rhizosphere activity, thereby supporting sustainable agriculture and soil health management (Rahman et al., 2025) [13] .

Nano-Encapsulation Technologies

Nano-encapsulation technology involves the coating or encapsulation of nutrients within nano-scale carrier materials such as polymers, liposomes, chitosan, zeolites, or biodegradable nanocomposites. This technology helps protect nutrients from premature degradation and enables slow, controlled, and targeted nutrient release according to crop demand (Raliya et al., 2023) [15] . Nano-encapsulated fertilizers significantly reduce nutrient losses through leaching, volatilization, and fixation while improving nutrient uptake efficiency. These formulations also increase fertilizer stability and prolong nutrient availability in the soil-plant system. Nanoencapsulation is therefore considered an advanced strategy for improving fertilizer performance and environmental sustainability in modern agricultural systems (Mahapatra et al., 2025) [9] .

Smart Delivery Systems

Smart delivery systems represent an advanced generation of nano-fertilizer technologies designed to release nutrients in response to specific environmental or plant-related signals such as soil moisture, pH, temperature, root exudates, or nutrient demand. These systems use intelligent nano-carriers, nano-sensors, and responsive polymers to regulate nutrient release with high precision (El-Saadony et al., 2024) [7] . Smart nanofertilizer delivery systems improve nutrient synchronization with crop requirements and reduce excessive fertilizer application. Such technologies support precision agriculture, climate-smart farming, and sustainable intensification of crop production systems. Moreover, smart delivery systems help minimize environmental pollution, enhance nutrient use efficiency, and optimize agricultural resource management under changing climatic conditions (Sharma et al., 2024) [20] . [6] Physical methods Ultrasonication Use of ultrasonic waves for nanoparticle formation and dispersion

Produces uniform nanoparticles

Enhances nutrient absorption efficiency Khan et al., (2022) [8] Physical methods Laser ablation Laser energy used for nanoparticle synthesis

High purity nanoparticles

Suitable for advanced nano-formulations Zhao et al., (2024) [23] Physical methods Thermal decomposition Heat-induced breakdown of precursor compounds

Controlled nanoparticle synthesis

Produces stable nanofertilizer particles

Chen et al., (2024) [4] Chemical methods Sol-gel synthesis Conversion of liquid precursors into nano-scale gel structures Uniform particle size and high stability Improves controlled nutrient release Raliya et al., (2023) [15] Chemical methods Precipitation method

Chemical reaction forms insoluble nanoparticles

Easy and rapid synthesis

Enhances nutrient solubility and uptake

Sharma et al.,

(2024) [20] Chemical methods

Hydrothermal synthesis

High temperature and pressurebased nanoparticle formation

High crystallinity and purity

Suitable for efficient nutrient carriers

Chen et al., (2024) [4] Chemical methods

Chemical reduction

Reduction of metal ions into nanoparticles using reducing agents

Precise particle control Improves fertilizer efficiency

Zhao et al., (2024) [23] Biological/green synthesis Plant extractmediated synthesis Plant biomolecules used for nanoparticle formation

Eco-friendly and low toxicity

Supports sustainable agriculture

Arora et al., (2024) [2] Biological/green synthesis Bacterial synthesis Bacteria-mediated nanoparticle production

Biocompatible and environmentally safe

Enhances soil microbial interactions

Rahman et al., (2025) [13] Biological/green synthesis Fungal synthesis Fungi used for extracellular nanoparticle formation High nanoparticle yield Improves sustainable nutrient management

El-Saadony et al., (2024) [7] Biological/green synthesis Algal synthesis Algae-assisted nanoparticle production

Renewable and green approach

Reduces environmental pollution

Mahapatra et al., (2025) [9] [9] Smart delivery systems pH-responsive release Nutrient release triggered by soil pH changes

Site-specific nutrient availability

Enhances precision nutrient management

El-Saadony et al., (2024) [7] Smart [20] Smart delivery systems Nano-sensor-based systems Nano-sensors monitor nutrient demand and release

Real-time nutrient management

Improves fertilizer use efficiency

Zhao et al., (2024) [23] Smart delivery systems Precision nutrient delivery Intelligent nutrient release based on crop demand

Optimized fertilizer application

Promotes sustainable crop production Raliya et al., (2023) [15] 5. Mechanisms of [15,22] . [15,20] . [20] Chickpea Nano-Fe fertilizer 50 ppm foliar spray 11-16% Rahman et al., (2025) [13] Soybean Nano-composite fertilizer 1.5 g L⁻¹ spray 14-20% El-Saadony et al., (2024) [7] Tomato Nano-K fertilizer 100 ppm foliar spray 18-25% Raliya et al., (2023) [15] 7. Environmental and Ecological Implications Nano-fertilizers offer significant advantages in improving nutrient use efficiency and reducing fertilizer losses; however, their environmental and ecological impacts require careful evaluation. Excessive accumulation of nanoparticles may alter soil physicochemical properties, interfere with nutrient cycling, and induce oxidative stress in soil organisms (Khan et al., 2022) [8] . Soil microbial communities are highly sensitive to nanoparticle exposure, and high concentrations of metal-based nanoparticles may reduce microbial biomass and enzymatic activity (Rajput et al., 2024) [14] . Nanoparticles may also accumulate in plant tissues and enter the food chain, posing potential risks to human and animal health (Dimkpa et al., 2023) [5] . In addition, nanoparticle runoff can contaminate aquatic ecosystems and affect non-target organisms (Zhao et al., 2024) [23] . Environmental persistence, mobility, and transformation of nanoparticles further influence their ecological behavior and toxicity (Rahman et al., 2025) [13] . Therefore, long-term ecotoxicological assessment, life cycle analysis, and regulatory risk evaluation are necessary for the safe and sustainable use of nano-fertilizers in agriculture (Mahapatra et al., 2025) [9] . [5]

References

1. Adisa IO, Pullagurala VLR, Peralta-Videa JR, Dimkpa CO, Elmer WH, Gardea-Torresdey JL, et al. Recent advances in nano-enabled fertilizers and pesticides: A critical review of mechanisms of action. Environ Sci Nano. 2021;8(2):423441.
2. Arora PK, Tripathi S, Omar RA, Chauhan P, Sinhal VK, Singh A, et al. Next-generation fertilizers: The impact of bionanofertilizers on sustainable agriculture. Microb Cell Fact. 2024;23:254.
3. Channab B, Idrissi AE, Ammar A, Dardari O, Marrane SE, Gharrak AE, et al. Recent advances in nano-fertilizers: Synthesis, crop yield impact, and economic analysis. Nanoscale. 2024;16:4484-4513.
4. Chen J, Wei X, Liu Y, Zhang H, Li Q. Advances in nanoenabled fertilizers for sustainable agricultural production and environmental protection. Sci Total Environ. 2024;912:169102.
5. Dimkpa CO, Bindraban PS, Fugice J, Agyin-Birikorang S, Singh U, Hellums D. Composite micronutrient nanoparticles and salts decrease drought stress in soybean. Agron Sustain Dev. 2023;43:17.
6. Duhan JS, Kumar R, Kumar N, Kaur P, Nehra K, Duhan S. Nanotechnology: The new perspective in precision agriculture. Biotechnol Rep. 2023;39:e00821.
7. El-Saadony MT, Saad AM, Soliman SM, Salem HM, Ahmed AI, El-Tahan AM. Nanotechnology applications in sustainable agriculture: Current trends and future opportunities. Environ Res. 2024;248:118216.
8. Khan I, Awan SA, Ikram M, Rizwan M, Akhtar N, Yasmin H, Sayyed RZ. Nanoparticles: Properties, applications and toxicities in agriculture and environment. Chemosphere. 2022;287:132103.
9. Mahapatra DM, Chanakya HN, Ramachandra TV. Nanofertilizers for sustainable crop production: Emerging opportunities and environmental concerns. J Environ Manage. 2025;372:123041.
10. Mukhopadhyay SS. Nanotechnology in agriculture: Prospects and constraints. Nanotechnol Sci Appl. 2021;14:63-74.
11. Parisi C, Vigani M, Rodríguez-Cerezo E. Agricultural nanotechnologies: What are the current possibilities? Nano Today. 2021;40:101287.
12. Pudhuvai B, Koul B, Das R, Shah MP. Nano-fertilizers for resurgence in nutrient use efficiency (NUE): A sustainable agricultural strategy. Curr Pollut Rep. 2025;11(1):1-20.
13. Rahman MM, Islam MS, Hasanuzzaman M, Oku H. Advances in nano-enabled fertilizers for sustainable agriculture and environmental safety. Environ Technol Innov. 2025;37:103245.
14. Rajput VD, Minkina T, Sushkova S, Tsitsuashvili V, Mandzhieva S, Gorovtsov A, et al. Effects of metal-based nanoparticles on soil microbial communities and enzymatic activity. J Hazard Mater. 2024;462:132445.
15. Raliya R, Saharan V, Dimkpa C, Biswas P. Nanofertilizer for precision and sustainable agriculture: Current state and future perspectives. J Agric Food Chem. 2023;71(18):70247041.
16. Rani M, Yadav RK, Sharma S, Kumar V. Bibliometric analysis and emerging trends in nano-fertilizer research for sustainable agriculture. Environ Technol Innov. 2025;38:103458.
17. Rico CM, Majumdar S, Duarte-Gardea M, Peralta-Videa JR, Gardea-Torresdey JL. Interaction of nanoparticles with edible plants and implications to food safety. J Agric Food Chem. 2021;69(6):1707-1720.
18. Science of the Total Environment. 2024;912:169102.
19. Servin AD, White JC. Nanotechnology in agriculture: Next steps for understanding engineered nanoparticle exposure and risk. NanoImpact. 2021;21:100278.
20. Sharma P, Singh H, Kumar A, Kaur G. Nano-fertilizers as climate-smart nutrient management tools for sustainable agriculture. Agronomy. 2024;14(2):356.
21. Singh R, Meena RS, Kumar S, Yadav GS. Nano-fertilizers and sustainable agriculture: Opportunities and constraints. Front Plant Sci. 2023;14:1198745.
22. Verma KK, Song XP, Degu HD, Guo DJ, Joshi A, Huang HR, Xu L, Singh M, Rajput VD, Li YR. Recent advances in nitrogen and nano-nitrogen fertilizers for sustainable crop production: A mini-review. Chem Biol Technol Agric. 2023;10:1-15.
23. Zhao L, Peralta-Videa JR, Rico CM, Hernandez-Viezcas JA, Sun Y, Gardea-Torresdey JL. Nanotechnology applications in sustainable agriculture: Progress, challenges, and future perspectives. Sci Total Environ. 2024;912:168965.