Effect of different Vapsa regimes and mulching on growth and yield of summer green gram under natural farming conditions

Introduction

Pulses are an extraordinary gift from nature, serving as a gateway to sustainable agriculture through their exceptional nutritional value. Legumes, an integral component of the Indian diet, have historically provided essential proteins and amino acids. Green gram (Vigna radiata L.) commonly known as "mung" or "mung bean" is one of the most important and extensively cultivated pulse crops of the Indian subcontinent. Including it into the rotation maintains the soil's vitality and productivity. Green gram can be grown in rabi, summer and kharif seasons because it is not sensitive to light or temperature. It matures in 65 to 70 days. Because there are less biotic and abiotic stressors on summer green gram than on kharif crop, the yield level is higher [3] .%. Inadequate irrigation management and inefficient water use are among the primary causes of low green gram productivity during summer. Notably, mungbean ranks second only to soybean in drought resistance [1] . Agronomic intervention such as mulching proves to be a practical solution to maintain optimal soil temperature and moisture conditions [19] and finally achieve higher yields [37] .

Methodology

An experiment was conducted during the summer season of 2024 at College Farm, College of Natural Farming, Gujarat Natural Farming Science University, Halol (Gujarat) on a green gram crop. Geographically, Halol is located at 22º 42' N latitude, 73° 54' E longitude at an altitude of about 104 meters above the mean sea level. The climate of Halol region is semi-arid and subtropical with hot in summer and cool in winter. The soil of the experimental site was clayey in texture (Coarse sand 0.56%, Fine sand 82.10%, Silt 10.06% and Clay 7.16%) with a pH of 7.22. The experiment was laid out in a Split Plot Design with different VAPSA regimes as main plot and mulching as a sub plot treatment. A Main Plot treatment VAPSA Regime (V) Flatbed method (V 1 ), Raised bed method(V 2 ), Alternate furrow method(V 3 ) and Sub Plot treatment Mulching (M) as a Control(M 0 ), Rice Straw 5,000 kg/ha(M 1 ), Rice Straw 10,000 kg/ha (M 2 ). Beejamrutwas applied @ 100 ml/ kg seed as a seed treatment, Jeevamrut was applied @ 1000 liter/ha at pre-sowing irrigation, Jeevamrut was applied @ 500 liter/ha as a foliar spray at 15 days interval up to maturity of the crop, Ghanjeevamrut was applied @ 1000 kg/ha before one week of sowing, Cowpea, Okra, Guar and Bajri crops were grown as mixed cropping @ 30-40% of main crops and first irrigation was applied as common to all treatments The treatments were replicated four times and assigned randomly to each plot in each replication. The gross and net plot sizes were 4.5 m x 6.0 m and 3.6 m x 5.0 m, The experiment encompassed 9 treatments consisting of different VAPSA regimes and applications with mulching.

Results and Discussion

Effect on Growth Parameters 1.1 Plant height

A perusal of data presented in Table 1 indicated that height of plant at 20 DAS did not affect significantly due to different VAPSA regimes. While, cultivation of green gram on treatment raised bed method (V 2 ) recorded significantly the highest plant height (45.59 cm). While significantly, lower plant height (40.07 cm) was recorded due to V 1 . At harvest, higher plant height (57.22 cm) was obtained with V 2 which was significantly higher than V 3 . While significantly, lower 53.11cm was noted with V 1 . The plant height increased linearly up to 40 DAS and continued to increase until maturity at a diminishing rate. These results are in agreement with the findings of [23,30,16,38] . The data on plant height measured at 20 DAS under different mulching treatments were found non-significant, while 40 DAS and at harvest, plant height was found significant (Table 1). The improved plant height in green gram with mulching over control might be due to optimum availability of nutrients and moisture [33, 6 and 41] .

Dry weight of root nodules

The perusal of data in Table 1 indicated that VAPSA regimes significantly influenced dry weight of root nodules accumulation per plant recorded at 40 DAS. Raised bed method (V 2 ) recorded significantly higher dry weight of root nodules per plant at 40 DAS (43.49 mg) which was statistically at par with V 3 . Nodulation in the various VAPSA regimes is governed by soil structure associated with micro climatic conditions of soil in which plant grow. The various VAPSA regimes with V 1 registered significantly the lowest dry weight of root nodules accumulation per plant (39.68 mg) at 40 DAS. This might be due to maintaining of optimum moisture supply in the effective root zone which improved physico-chemical and biological properties of soil resulting in better nodulation under V 2 sowing. Almost similar results were also reported by (5, 15, 21 and 42). A perusal of data in Table 1.0 elucidated that dry weight of root nodules per plant was affected significantly due to different sub plot treatments at 40 DAS. The highest dry weight of root nodules per plant at 40 DAS (43.00 mg) was recorded under an application of M 2 . Whereas significantly, lower dry weight of root nodules per plant at 30 DAS (40.66 mg) was recorded under treatment M 0 . which was statistically at par with rice straw mulch @ 5000 kg/ha application (M 1 ). These results are in agreement with that reported by [13] . They claimed that plants cultivated with organic mulch treatments had the highest root length, number of secondary roots and lateral roots, root weight with nodules and root weight without nodules.

Number of branches

The effect of VAPSA regimes on number of branches per plant registered at harvest in green gram was observed significant. As indicated in Table 1, significantly the highest number of branches per plant (5.77) at harvest was recorded under V 2 . Whereas, lower number of branches per plant (4.44) were recorded when green gram was irrigated using the V 1 . The difference in performance of different VAPSA regimes concerning the number of branches per plant might be due to improved growth characteristics, viz., number of branches, which could be attributed to optimum availability of nutrients and moisture. These results are in accordance with the findings of [32,24] . Number of branches per plant at harvest was affected significantly due to different sub plot treatments are presented in Table 1 Treatment of M 2 recorded significantly the highest number of branches per plant (5.43). While significantly lower number of branches per plant (4.71) was observed under M 0 treatment. Using various mulching materials can modify the soil microclimate, which in turn promotes an increase in number of branches per plant, leaf area and total dry matter accumulation. These results align with the findings of [40,20,4,8,10] .

Effect on Yield Attributes and Yield 2.1 Number of pods per plant

An appraisal of data presented in Table 1 revealed that VAPSA regimes produce significantly higher number of pods per plant recorded at harvest. However, significantly higher number of pods per plant (27.61) and significantly lower number of pods per plant (23.71) were noted under V 2 and V 1 treatments, respectively. Significantly higher number of pods per plant was recorded under V 2 sowing. This might be due to better growth of plant in terms of dry matter accumulation under raised bed sowing which might have adequately supplied more photosynthates for development of sink. The present findings were in accordance with those of [15] in groundnut, [38] in chickpea. A scrutiny of data (Table 1.0) revealed that different sub plot treatments significantly affected the number of pods per plant at harvest. Among the different treatments, application of M 2 produced significantly higher number of pods per plant (27.02), which was at par with application of M 1 . Whereas significantly, the lowest number of pods per plant (23.31) was recorded under M 0 treatment.The difference in number of pods per plant might be due to experiencing drought stress by different treatments during its reproductive stages. Drought stress greatly reduces the grain yield which is dependent on the level of defoliation due to water stress during early reproductive growth [29] .

Length of pod

The data presented in Table 1.0 revealed that pod length was significantly affected due to VAPSA regimes treatments. Among different treatments, VAPSA regimes at V 2 produced significantly the highest pod length (8.92 cm). Whereas, significantly lower pod length (7.86 cm) was recorded under VAPSA regimes at V 1 . Similar results were also reported by [17] . The concerned data (Table 1.0) showed that different sub plot treatments significantly affected the pod length. Among the various treatments, significantly the highest pod length (8.57 cm) was recorded under the application of M 2 . Whereas, significantly lower pod length (8.06 cm) was recorded under M 0 .

Similar results were also reported by [7,13] .

Grain weight per plant

The data presented in Table 1.0 revealed that grain weight (g) per plant at harvest was significantly affected due to VAPSA regimes treatments. Among the different treatments, VAPSA regimes treatment at V 2 produced significantly the highest grain weight per plant at harvest (13.50 g). Whereas, significantly lower grain weight per plant at harvest was recorded (9.62 g) due to VAPSA regimes at V 1 . These results are in accordance with the findings of [17,39] . Concerned data (Table 1.0) showed that different sub plot treatments affected significantly on grain weight per plant. Among the various treatments, significantly the highest grain weight per plant at harvest (12.66 g) was recorded under an application of M 2 . Whereas, significantly lower grain weight per plant at harvest (10.46 g) was recorded under M 1 . Similar results were also reported by [17] in green gram. The data on interaction effect presented in Table 2.0 revealed that the combination of VAPSA regimes at raised bed method and application of V 2 M 2 recorded significantly the highest grain weight per plant (16.69 g) as compared to rest of combinations at harvest. Whereas significantly, the lowest grain weight per plant at harvest (7.62 g) was recorded under the treatment combination V 1 M 0.

Grain yield

The results of the experiment depicted in Table 1.0 revealed that cultivation of summer green gram on V 2 resulted in significantly the highest grain yield. Between the different VAPSA regimes the highest grain yield of (1075 kg/ha) was recorded under the V 2 , while the lowest grain yield (736 kg/ha) was observed under V 1 . The V 2 resulted in a (46.01%) increase in grain yield compared to the V 1 . V 3 recorded a grain yield (900 kg/ha), showing an 22.88% increase over V 1 , but it was (19.44%) lower than V 2 treatment. This might be due to the cumulative effect exerted from better improvement in drainage, soil environment, aeration, root development, rhizobium bacteria fixing nitrogen inside nodules using the nitrogenase enzyme. This process requires ATP and anaerobic conditions (protected from oxygen by leghemoglobin in nodules). It is a mutualistic relationship, where both plant and bacteria benefit. Optimum moisture-air equilibrium throughout the crop growth besides supply of available nutrients to the crop resulting in better growth and development ultimately reflected in better grain yields. These findings corroborated the results of [22,9,12] with respect to grain yield; [15,38,11] in cowpea with respect to grain and stover yields. Data pertaining to grain yield (kg/ha) revealed that different sub plot treatments caused their significant influence on grain yield presented in Table 1.0 Significantly the highest grain yield (1083 kg/ha) was recorded under an application of M 2 to a 48.96% increase in grain yield compared to M 0 . While significantly the lowest grain yield (727 kg/ha) was recorded under M 0 Treatment. Mulching conserves soil moisture by reducing evaporation, regulates soil temperature, and suppresses weed growth; ensuring crops have better access to resources. It also improves soil structure and fertility by adding organic matter as it decomposes, enhances microbial activity, and reduces soil erosion and compaction. These combined benefits create optimal growing conditions, leading to significantly higher yields compared to untreated control plots, as evidenced by studies such as [26,33,28] . The data on interaction effect presented in Table 2.0 revealed that different of VAPSA regimes at raised bed method and application of V 2 M 2 recorded significantly higher grain yield per (1289 kg/ha) but it was at par with V 3 M 2 treatment combination. Whereas significantly lower grain yield (635 kg/ha) was recorded under treatment combination of V 3 M 0. Mulching significantly enhances soil moisture retention by reducing surface evaporation, ensuring prolonged water availability in the root zone. It also regulates soil temperature, improving root growth and nutrient uptake. Furthermore, mulching suppresses weed growth, minimizing competition for resources, and improves soil structure and organic matter content, enhancing water infiltration and nutrient availability. These benefits, coupled with VAPSA conditions that maintain optimal moisture levels for plant growth, create a synergistic effect that boosts overall crop productivity. Which also provided nutrient to long period of crop life which reflected in better growth and development of plant and ultimately resulted in increased grain yield. The results were supported by the findings of [35,14,27] .

Stover yield

The perusal of data in Table 1.0 indicated that VAPSA regimes significantly influenced stover yield. Raised bed method (V 2 ) recorded significantly the highest stover yield (1498 kg/ha). However, VAPSA regimes with flatbed method (V 1 ) registered significantly the lowest stover yield (1039 kg/ha). The raised bed system provides improved soil aeration, better drainage, and reduced soil compaction, creating an optimal environment for root development and nutrient uptake. Enhanced soil physical properties in raised beds allow for greater root exploration volume and improved water-holding capacity in the active root zone. These findings were corroborated the results of [15,38,11] with respect to stover yields. Among mulching treatments (Table 1.0) significantly the highest stover yield (1467 kg/ha) was recorded under treatment M 2 . While significantly, the lowest stover yield (1065 kg/ha) was recorded under M 0 treatment. These results are in accordance with the findings of [34,31] .

Green gram equivalent yield

The study (Table 1.0) revealed that different VAPSA regimes significantly influenced green gram equivalent yield. Among V 2 recorded the highest GEY (1567 kg/ha), representing a 49.81% increase over the V 1 which produced significantly the lowest GEY (1046 kg/ha). Cultivation methods like raised beds and alternate furrows influence soil structure, aeration and moisture, which directly affect nutrient availability. Raised beds improve drainage and root growth, enhancing nutrient uptake. Better soil conditions also support microbial activity, which aids nutrient cycling through processes like nitrogen fixation and mineral solubilization. These practices can influence soil pH, where suitable levels improve nutrient availability and microbial function. Thus, VAPSA regimes impact both crop performance and long-term soil fertility. The data related to green gram equivalent yield as presented in Table 1.0 indicated that different sub-plot treatments had a significant influence on yield. Among the various treatments, an application of M 2 resulted in the highest green gram equivalent yield, reaching 1579 kg/ha. This yield represented a 52.56% increase compared to the M 0 , highlighting the positive impact of mulching on crop productivity. On the other hand, the lowest green gram equivalent yield, recorded of 1035kg/ha was observed under the M 0 treatment. Significantly the lowest yield in the absence of mulch underscores the crucial role of mulching in improving soil moisture retention, suppressing weed growth and enhancing nutrient availability, which collectively contribute to higher crop yields. These findings are consistent with research conducted by [25] , which demonstrated that straw significantly improves water retention and crop yields in green gram by reducing evaporation and weed competition. Similarly [34] found that higher rates of straw mulch application led to improve growth parameters and yields in green gram due to better soil moisture conservation and nutrient availability. The data on interaction effect presented in Table 2.0 revealed that combination of VAPSA regimes at raised bed method and application of V 2 M 2 recorded significantly higher green gram equivalent yield (1865 kg/ha), however it was statistically, at par with treatments of V 3 M 2 indicating that similar benefits could be achieved under slightly different VAPSA regime and mulching conditions. On the contrary, lower green gram equivalent yield (898 kg/ha) was recorded under V 1 M 0 treatment which involved the flat bed method without any mulch application (control). Significantly reduced yield in this treatment highlights the negative impact of inadequate soil moisture conservation and the absence of mulch, which likely led to higher evaporation, poor nutrient retention, and increased weed competition.

Economics

Data presented in Table 3.0 indicated that maximum net realization of Rs. 1,17,149 per hectare and a BCR of 3.85 were achieved using V 2 . This was followed by V 3 , which was resulted in a net realization of Rs. 94,215 per hectare and a BCR of 3.39. Furthermore, the data presented in Table 3.0 showed that M 2 resulted in a net return of Rs. 1,13,787 per hectare and a BCR of 3.50. M 1 treatment demonstrated relatively favourable economic returns. This could be attributed due to maximum yield, stover green gram equivalent under existing conditions. These findings suggested that while the control may be a viable lowcost option, adopting improved methods can significantly enhance economic returns. Among all the treatment combinations, V 2 M 2 recorded the highest green gram equivalent yield (1865 kg/ha), stover yield (1739 kg/ha), gross realization (Rs. 1,88,239/ha) and net realization (Rs. 1,39,319/ha), along with the maximum BCR of 3.85. This clearly indicated that V 2 M 2 treatment combination provided the most favourable environment for crop growth and yield attributes, leading to higher profitability. The data on interaction effect presented in Table 4.0 revealed that, This was closely followed by V 3 M 2 , which also showed a high green gram equivalent yield (1698 kg/ha), high net return (Rs. 1,24,062/ha) and a BCR of 3.63, suggesting that even under slightly less favourable moisture conditions (V 3 ) and application of rice straw mulch @ 10,000 kg/ha can substantially improved economic returns. On the other hand, the lowest performance was recorded in V 3 M 0 treatment combination, which resulted in lower green gram equivalent yield (926 kg/ha) and lower net realization (Rs. 54,273/ha) as well as the lowest BCR (2.38). This demonstrated that absence of mulching under less favourable moisture conditions significantly hampers productivity and profitability. Although V 1 M 0 showed the lowest green gram equivalent yield (898 kg/ha), it was result in the lowest BCR (2.41) value because cost of the lowest cultivation of (Rs. 37,709/ha) V 1 M 0 among all treatments combination. Even with lower production, the lower input cost resulted in a better net return per rupee invested, compared to V 3 M 0 treatment combination.

Conclusion

The study demonstrates that the raised bed method (V 2 ) and rice straw mulch at 10,000 kg/ha (M 2 ) are the most effective treatments for optimizing growth, yield and economics status in summer green gram under natural farming conditions. Additionally, the raised bed method (V 2 ) with rice straw mulch at 10,000 kg/ha (M 2 ) significantly enhanced grain yield and nutrient uptake. From an economic perspective, the raised bed method (V 2 ) proved to be the most profitable practice, offering the highest BCR and net returns. These findings highlight the importance of selecting the appropriate VAPSA regimes and mulching strategies for profitable and sustainable in natural farming condition.

References

1. Ali A, Nadeem MA, Tayyab M, Tahir M, Sohail M. Determining suitable planting geometry for two mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) cultivars under Faisalabad conditions. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. 2001;4:344-450.
2. Alipour S, Salihy A, Ebrahimi N, Ghafari S, Mozafari S. Effect of straw and irrigation frequency on yield and yield components of mung bean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek). 2023.
3. Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy. Indian harvest. 2004.
4. Awal MA, Dhar PC, Sultan MS. Effect of mulching on microclimatic manipulation, weed suppression, and growth and yield of pea (Pisum sativum L.). Journal of Agriculture and Ecology Research International. 2016;8(2):1-12.
5. Bajpai RP, Malik DS. A note on methods of sowing for groundnut. JNKVV Research. 1976;10:56-60.
6. Bhatt RM, Srinivas Rao NK. Influence of pod load response of okra to water stress. Indian Journal of Plant Physiology. 2005;10:54-59.
7. Choudhary SK, Choudhary GL, Prajapat K. Response of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) to fertility levels and mulching. Environment & Ecology. 2013;31(2):492-495.
8. Deka AM, Sheikh IA, Pathak D, Praharaj CS. Effect of tillage practices and mulching on growth and yield of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) in rice-chickpea based cropping system under rainfed condition of Assam. Journal of Crop and Weed. 2021;17(3):9-16.
9. Desai NC, Ardeshna RB, Intwala CG. Increasing pigeonpea productivity by providing land configuration in Vertisols. International Chickpea and Pigeonpea Newsletter. 2000;7:17-18.
10. Dey S, Pramanik K, Mukherjee S, Poddar S, Barik K. Effect of seed priming and straw mulching on growth and productivity of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) under rainfed condition. SATSA Mukhapatra. 2014;18:126-131.
11. Dhimmar SK. Response of kharif cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) to land configuration and bio-fertilizers under south Gujarat conditions. Navsari Agricultural University; 2003.
12. Dhindwal AS, Hooda IS, Malik RK, Kumar S. Water productivity of furrow-irrigated rainy-season pulses planted on raised beds. Indian Journal of Agronomy. 2006;51(1):4953.
13. Dukare A, Kale S, Kannaujia P, Indore N, Mahawar MK, Singh RK, et al. Root development and nodulation in cowpea as affected by application of organic and different types of inorganic/plastic mulches. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2017;6(11):1728-1738.
14. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Navsari Agricultural University; 2003.
15. Hadvani RG, Ahlawat RPS, Trivedi SJ. Effect of method of sowing and levels of sulphur on growth and yield of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea). Indian Journal of Agronomy. 1993;38(2):325-327.
16. Haranath N. Studies on methods of land treatment for moisture conservation and utilization by rainfed groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Thesis Abstracts. 1981;7(3):192193.
17. Idnani LK, Gautam HK. Water economization in summer green gram (Vigna radiata L.) as influenced by irrigation regimes and land configurations. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2008;78(3):214-219.
18. Indiastat. State and season-wise area, production and productivity of moong in India. 2020-2021.
19. Jabran K. Mulches for regulation of soil temperature. In: Role of mulching in pest management and agricultural sustainability. 2019:47-52.
20. Jadhav ML, Mishra KP, Pandey A, Mishra US, Duggal A, Gautam SS, Khariya RK. Influence of mulch and drip irrigation on growth and yield of pigeon pea. The Pharma Innovation Journal. 2020;9(9):374-377.
21. Jain HP, Dubey AK. Productivity and economic viability of soybean with respect to planting systems and cultivars in Vertisol. Crop Research. 1998;16(1):120-122.
22. Jayapaul P, Uthayakumar B, Devasagayam MM, Pandian BJ, Pakhamy A, Balakrishnan A. Effect of land configuration method, irrigation regimes and soil moisture conservation amendments on soybean. Crop Research. 1996;11(3):253-257.
23. Joshi JR. Response of summer cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) to land configuration and fertilizer management practices under south Gujarat condition. Navsari Agricultural University; 2018.
24. Karande SV, Khot RB, Hankar RH. Effect of layout and nutrient integration on yield and nutrient uptake of chickpea. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities. 2006;31(3):370-372.
25. Kaur L, Kaur A, Brar AS. Water use efficiency of green gram (Vigna radiata L.) impacted by paddy straw mulch and irrigation regimes in north-western India. Agricultural Water Management. 2021;258:107184.
26. Khurshid K, Iqbal M, Arif MS, Nawaz A. Effect of tillage and mulch on soil physical properties and growth of maize. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology. 2006;8(5):593-596.
27. Mathan KK, Francis HJ, Ramanathan SP. Response of blackgram (Phaseolus mungo) to fertilization and rhizobium inoculation. Indian Journal of Agronomy. 1996;41(1):74-77.
28. Mbanyele V, Mtambanengwe F, Nezomba H, Rurinda J, Mapfumo P. Conservation agriculture in semi-arid Zimbabwe: a promising practice to improve finger millet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn.) productivity and soil water availability in the short term. Agriculture. 2022;12(5):622.
29. Monneveux P, Sanchez C, Beck D, Edmeades GO. Drought tolerance improvement in tropical maize source populations: evidence of progress. Crop Science. 2006;46:180-191.
30. Pal D, Dwivedi A, Singh R, Kumar K, Singh A, Tomar SS. Integrated effect of land configurations and weed management regimes on weed dynamics and performance of urd bean (Vigna mungo L. Hepper) in an alluvial soil. Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 2015;8(11).
31. Parmar PP, Thanki JD. Effect of irrigation, phosphorus and biofertilizer on growth and yield of rabi green gram (Vigna radiata L.) under south Gujarat condition. Crop Research. 2007;34(1-3):100-102.
32. Patel KB, Tandel YN, Arvadia MK. Effect of irrigation and land configuration on growth, yield and quality of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) under vertisol of South Gujarat. International Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2009;5(1):295-296.
33. Ram H, Singh G, Aggarwal N. Effect of irrigation, straw mulching and weed control on growth, water use efficiency and productivity of summer mung bean. Legume Research. 2016;39(2):284-288.
34. Reddy GS, Debbarma V, Rao PR. Effect of phosphorus and mulching on growth and yield of zaid green gram (Vigna radiata L.). International Journal of Environment and Climate Change. 2023;13(10):2132-2140.
35. Reddy KM, Reddy SC, Reddy TY. Dry matter production, distribution and nutrient content of green gram (Phaseolus radiatus L.) varieties as influenced by fertility treatment. Indian Journal of Agronomy. 1992;37(2):268-272.
36. Reddy SR. Agronomy of field crops. Hyderabad: Kalyani Publishers; 2013.
37. Sekhon KS, Kaur A, Thaman S, Sidhu AS, Garg N, Choudhary OP, et al. Growth, yield attributes and quality of summer green gram (Vigna radiata L.) as influenced by nitrogen and irrigation levels. Annals of Agricultural Research. 2014;35(1).
38. Shaikh RS, Mungse HB. Influence of planting system, plant population and fertilizer levels on physiological parameters of late sown chickpea. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities. 1998;23(1):73-74.
39. Shinde SH, Thakur NT, Bhilare RL. Effect of field layouts and fertilizer levels on productivity of chickpea. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities. 2000;25(1):76-77.
40. Solanki MA, Chalodia AL, Fadadu MH, Dabhi PV. Response of pigeon pea to drip irrigation and mulching. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2019;8(2):91-97.
41. Surya JN, Puranik RB, Zadode SD, Deshmukh SD. Effect of wheat straw incorporation on yield of green gram and wheat soil fertility and microbiota. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities. 2000;25:158-160.
42. Tomar SS, Singh YP, Naresh RK, Mrunalin K, Gurjar RS, Yadav R, Sharma D. Water-use efficiency and the effect of water deficits under different planting techniques on productivity and profitability of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) in Typic Ustochrept soil of Morena region of MP. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2020;1:709-719.