Utilisation of bio-diverse resource fodder and fuelwood species by Halakki Vakkaliga communities: An ethnographic study

Introduction

India's tribal and rural communities have historically depended on wild plant resources for fodder, medicine, fuel and economic security, forming the foundation of integrated agriculturelivestock systems amid ecological challenges. Numerous ethno-botanical studies document this reliance across diverse regions. In Jammu and Kashmir's Poonch and Rajouri districts, Adil Farooq (2021) [1] and Sikarwar et al. (2016) [10] cataloged wild fodder plants used by nomadic Gujjar and Bakerwal tribes, highlighting overgrazing impacts, while Ali et al. (2023) [2] surveyed species in Azmatabad village and Gulshan Kumar and Hem Chander (2018) [6] detailed ethno-veterinary fodder uses in Himachal Pradesh's Awah-Devi region. Further, Dubey (2020) [5] identified key tree fodders in Madhya Pradesh, Panigrahi et al. (2021) [9] documented agroforestry fuel-fodder species in Odisha's Koraput district and Nirmal Kumar Ji et al. (2007) [7] enumerated 50 multifunctional plants from 28 families serving Dangs tribals in Gujarat's Saputara-Purna forests for medicinal, economic and fodder purposes. Himalayan research provides quantitative insights into collection scales and socio-economic roles. Shah Khan et al. (2025) [11] reported 38 forestry fodder species mostly herbs from 14 families in rural Leh, yielding 844 tonnes annually (97.57% for subsistence, generating 7,090 man-days of employment), while Tajamul Islam et al. (2023) [12] identified 74 species in a protected area, with female-dominated collections (60%) ranging 25-90 kg/household/day, positively correlated with livestock numbers. In southern India, Niveditha (2024) [8] listed 39 wild fodder species from 23 families vital for Andhra Pradesh's tribes like Savaras and Gadabas, Bhandary (2014) [3] explored edible-fodder plants among coastal Karnataka communities and Dhyani et al. (2012) [4] assessed India's agroforestry extent, emphasizing fodder's critical future role. These studies consistently plant resources, herb dominance, multifunctionality (fodder, fuel, medicine) and pressures like overgrazing, shortages and crop failures prompting recommendations for regulated grazing, fodder plantations and agroforestry expansion. Yet significant gaps persist, particularly ethnographic depth on southern Western Ghats, where communities like Uttara Kannada's Halakki Vakkaligas integrate cultivation, cattle rearing (for draught power, milk, manure) and cultural practices with local flora amid deforestation threats. This ethnographic study addresses this gap by documenting fodder and diverse plant resources in Halakki Vakkaliga settlements through field observations, interviews and participatory mapping. It elucidates species diversity, utilization pattern linking local knowledge to tribal ecology policies and Western Ghats conservation.

Materials and Methods

The study was conducted during 2024 -2025 in forest-edge and coastal settlements of Ankola taluk (Badiger and Belambar villages) in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka. The study area represents a heterogeneous land scape comprising semievergreen forests, moist and dry deciduous forest patches, coastal and dune and agricultural land s. The climate is monsoonal, with heavy rainfall during the southwest monsoon period from June to September, followed by a distinct dry season, which strongly influences vegetation composition and seasonal fodder availability. An ethnographic research approach was adopted to document indigenous fodder and other plant resources used by the Halakki Vakkaliga community. The study ensured voluntary participation, anonymity of respondents and respect for community knowledge systems, in accordance with ethical guidelines for ethnobotanical research. Respondents were selected through purposive sampling, followed by snowball techniques, with emphasis on elders, women farmers, livestock rearers and traditional knowledge holders due to their long-term involvement in fodder collection and agricultural activities. Ethnobotanical data were collected using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and participant observation. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in the local language using a pre-tested interview schedule to document vernacular names of fodder and other species. Focus group discussions were organized to validate individual responses and obtain community-level perspectives. Fodder plant species were initially identified based on vernacular knowledge and subsequently cross-verified using stand ard regional floras and botanical references and information obtained from different respondents and methods was cross-checked to ensure reliability. The collected data were analysed using descriptive and qualitative analytical techniques.

Results and Discussion

Fodder resources used by the Halakki Vakkaligas

The fodder resources utilized by the Halakki Vakkaliga community of Uttara Kannada reflect a highly evolved indigenous livestock feeding system intricately embedded within the forest-agriculture-pasture mosaics of the Western Ghats. Livestock feeding practices are shaped by seasonal rainfall variability, access to forest commons, availability of crop residues and species-specific feeding behaviour of cattle, buffaloes and goats. The community employs a wide spectrum of tree, shrub, grass and herbaceous fodder species, with a pronounced dominance of tree-based fodder resources (Table 1). Such reliance on woody perennials is a recurring characteristic of forest-dependent and rainfed livestock systems across India, particularly in ecologically fragile landscapes where cultivated fodder production is limited and uncertain (Dhyani et al., 2012; Bhandary, 2014; Sikarwar et al., 2020) [4,3,10] . Tree fodders form the backbone of the Halakki fodder system by ensuring year-round biomass availability, nutritional stability and resilience during lean periods. Grey Downy Balsam (Garuga pinnata) is among the most critical summer fodders. Continuous leaf flushing, high palatability and digestibility make these species indispensable when grasses decline during the dry season. The prominence of Ficus and other perennial fodder trees aligns with agroforestry-based livestock systems described by Dhyani et al., (2012) [4] , where woody perennials provide ecological stability, nutritional buffering and livelihood resilience. Similar importance of Ficus species has been widely documented among traditional communities of coastal Karnataka and central India (Bhandary, 2014; Sikarwar et al., 2020) [3,10] . Indian Kino or Malabar Kino (Pterocarpus marsupium) is regarded locally as a nutritionally superior fodder, particularly for lactating and weak animals. Informants consistently associated its use with improved milk yield, better body condition and enhanced animal health. Comparable perceptions regarding the high fodder quality, palatability and longer lopping cycles of Pterocarpus species have been reported from central Indian forests, where such trees are classified as high-value fodder resources within traditional silvipastoral systems (Dhyani et al., 2012; Sikarwar et al., 2020) [4,10] . Similarly, Spinous Kino (Bridelia retusa) is valued for its drought tolerance and year-round availability, functioning as a dependable browse species during extended dry spells, a pattern also observed in forest-based livestock systems across India (Sajid Ali et al., 2023). Leguminous shrub fodders locally grouped under Flemingia (Flemingia macrophylla) occupy a strategically important position in the Halakki fodder system. These species are preferentially fed to milch cattle and are believed to enhance both milk quantity and quality. Dhyani et al. (2012) [4] emphasize the multifunctional role of leguminous fodder species in agroforestry systems, highlighting their contribution to livestock nutrition, soil fertility improvement and overall system sustainability. Comparable findings have been reported from agroforestry landscapes of Odisha and Madhya Pradesh (Panigrahi et al., 2020; Sikarwar et al., 2020) [9,10] . Browse species such as Woody fruit jujube (Ziziphus xylopyrus) and Mainphal or Mindhal (Randia dumetorum) are predominantly fed to goats in scrublands, fallows and forest margins. Their selection reflects an adaptive alignment with goats' natural browsing behaviour and tolerance to fibrous, thorny and tannin-rich foliage. Similar goat-centric fodder strategies have been documented among Gujjar and Bakerwal pastoral communities, where shrubs and thorny trees form essential low-input fodder resources during grass scarcity (Singh et al., 2016; Adil Farooq, 2021) [, 1] . Several tree species function as emergency or fallback fodders during acute scarcity. Tendu (tender leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon) and Kusum tree or Lac tree (Schleichera oleosa) are used when routine fodder sources become unavailable. The role of such species as seasonal safety nets is consistent with observations from traditional rangeland and agroforestry systems across India, where fodder trees enhance resilience under climatic stress (Dhyani et al., 2012; Bhandary, 2014; Gulshan Kumar & Hem Chander, 2018) [4,3,6] . Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) leaves are commonly fed to buffaloes, reflecting the dual food-fodder function of trees emphasized in indigenous agroforestry models (Dhyani et al., 2012) [4] .

Fast-growing and drought-tolerant species such as Acacia spp., including Acacia catechu are frequently lopped for fodder due to their rapid coppicing ability, high biomass production and multifunctionality. Dhyani et al., (2012) [4] identify Acacia species as key components of traditional agroforestry systems that enhance fodder security, fuelwood availability and farm resilience, a pattern also evident in the Halakki land scape (Panigrahi et al., 2020; Sikarwar et al., 2020) [9,10] . Grass-based fodder resources complement tree and shrub fodders, particularly during the monsoon season. Miniature bamboo (Pogonatherum paniceum and other Poaceae members) is extensively grazed due to its soft texture, high palatability and rapid regeneration. During late summer and drought periods, dry fodder consisting of stored dry hay grasses, becomes a crucial feed resource. Such fodder conservation practices align with adaptive strategies documented in indigenous livestock systems facing declining grazing lands and increasing climatic uncertainty (Dhyani et al., 2012) [4] .

Fuelwood Species used by the Halakki Vakkaligas

Halakki Vakkaligas select fuelwood based on density, burn duration and availability, favoring species that provide sustained heat for cooking without excessive smoke. Xylia xylocarpa (Burma Ironwood) stands out for its extremely heavy, hard heartwood, which resists termites and burns slowly, ideal for long fires; this echoes Panigrahi et al. (2021) [9] , where Odisha tribes prioritize similar dense Fabaceae for efficiency over fast fuels. Calophyllum inophyllum (Tamanu or oil nut tree) offers steady, low-smoke combustion from its oily bark/shoots, linked to its high lipid content yielding prolonged heat, comparable to biofuel studies showing superior thermal efficiency. Australian Babul (Acacia auriculiformis) dominates daily use due to rapid growth, abundance as an invasive, and fast ignition, mirroring Sikarwar et al. (2016) [10] in Jammu & Kashmir where it's harvested opportunistically; Terminalia paniculata provides clean, strong flames from its dry wood, aligning with regional Combretaceae preferences. (Table 2).

Timber/Utility species used by the Halakki Vakkaligas

Timber choices emphasize durability, weight, and resistance for construction in humid coastal conditions (Table 3). Australian Babul (Acacia auriculiformis) excels in poles/rafters due to termite-proof, straight-grained wood, paralleling Bhandary (2014) [3] documentation of its multipurpose role in local homegardens. Hopea parviflora (Ironwood) delivers highstrength beams from its dense Dipterocarpaceae timber, echoing Dhyani et al. (2012) [4] national agroforestry patterns for structural longevity; Vateria indica shares similar traits. Syzygium spp. yield hard wood for tools/ploughs, valued for rot resistance. Lighter Kydia calycina suits frames/tools, while Ailanthus triphysa provides fast-regenerating poles for temporary builds, indicating a balanced harvest strategy to avoid overexploitation.

Edible/Medicinal Plants used by the Halakki Vakkaligas

These plants highlight self-reliant healthcare and nutrition, with multipurpose uses validated across studies. Costus igneus leaves lower blood sugar via spirulina-like compounds, akin to Nirmal Kumar Ji et al. (2007) [7] Gujarat tribal remedies. Tinospora cordifolia (Guduchi) stems boost immunity and manage diabetes through berberine/tinosporin, with clinical trials confirming reduced fasting glucose without liver/renal harm, matching the cited work. Syzygium cumini (Wild Jamun) fruits/seeds aid gastric/diabetic issues in chutneys, aligning with Ali et al. (2023) [2] . Others like Zingiber officinale (digestion), Carissa carandas (vitamin C pickles), and Coleus amboinicus (respiratory relief) show pan-Indian continuity, with Limonia acidissima cooling digestion; overall, they underscore biodiversity conservation needs amid tribal dependence (Table 4). Overall, the Halakki Vakkaliga fodder system is characterized by high species diversity, strong seasonal calibration and functional redundancy. The integrated use of tree lopping, shrub browsing, grass grazing and hay storage distributes grazing pressure across multiple ecological niches, enhancing sustainability and resilience. In line with the agroforestry framework proposed by Dhyani et al. (2012) [4] , the Halakki system exemplifies how indigenous knowledge, native biodiversity and multifunctional trees together support climateresilient livestock production. Recognizing and strengthening such systems is essential for sustainable rangeland management and ecologically sound agroforestry interventions in the Western Ghats.

Conclusion

This study provides a comprehensive account of plant species used as fodder, firewood and utility timber by the Halakki Vakkaligas of Uttara Kannada. The community's traditional ecological knowledge is sophisticated, adaptive and rooted in sustainable principles. Recognizing and integrating such knowledge into local forest management policies, climate adaptation plans and biodiversity conservation initiatives is essential. Further research should explore gender-specific ecological knowledge, the impact of climate change on fodder availability.

Acknowledgement

AcknowledgementThe authors place a deep sense of gratitude towards Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) New Delhi for financial assistance, support and guidance for sanctioning research Project titled "Assessment of Food, Culture, Plant and Animal bio diversity among Halakki Vakkaliga Tribes in Uttar Kannada district-An Ethnographic analysis". The authors are also thankful to all the respondents who participated and contributed their knowledge to this study.

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