Unveiling the complex hidden drivers behind intercrop removal in oil palm with Garrett ranking method: a study in Andhra Pradesh
Abstract
Mushroom cultivation has become a rapidly increasing global trend over the last few years. Historically, mushrooms were only consumed by individuals residing in rural farming areas, and thus not a valuable product. Since the introduction of mushroom farms, farmers have been able to earn a viable income through their production. The role of mushrooms has become integral to the quality and quantity of food consumed, as well as maintaining a healthy lifestyle. Nutritionally, mushrooms are an excellent source and continue to increase in demand as a food product; additionally, many people view them as medicinal in regard to their health benefits. Mushrooms differ from traditional crops because they are grown indoors and do not require large growing areas (spaces). Moreover, mushroom crops are relatively quick to be harvested. On the other hand, if farmers wish to be proficient at producing mushrooms, the environment must be carefully monitored and managed to ensure optimal growing conditions. Specifically, temperature, humidity, moisture level, light, ventilation, and carbon dioxide all directly impact a farmer's ability to produce mushrooms successfully. Technology advancements have made the management of mushroom production much easier. The use of technology, called modern agriculture, provides mushroom farmers with additional tools for producing mushrooms through innovative methods such as Artificial Intelligence, Data Analytics, Internet of Things, and Cloud Computing. In addition to these technologies connecting the globe, they will continue to enhance how we farm.
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Introduction
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is a major producer of vegetable oil and the highest edible oil yielder (4-6 t ha⁻¹) among oil seed crops grown in the world (Corley & Tinker, 2016; FAO, 2022) [3] . It is cultivated in an area of 6.20 lakh hectares (NMEO-OP, 2025) spread in 14 states in India. It is perennial in nature with economic life for 25-30 years (Corley & Tinker, 2016) [3] and normally planted in an equilateral triangular system with 9m x 9m x 9m spacing (DOPR, 2013). During juvenile phase, lot of area is left having potential to grow intercrops (Nair, 1993) [11] . Similarly, there is sufficient inter space and enough light penetration through oil palm canopy in adult plantations (Corley and Tinker, 2016; Nair, 1993) [3] . Inter cropping is a process of growing subsidiary crops between two widely spaced rows of the main crop (Willey, 1979; Andrews & Kassam, 1976) [1,15] . The prime objective of inter cropping is production of more output by utilizing freely available resources like land and light between two rows of the main crop (Willey, 1979; Lithourgidis et al., 2011) [10,15] . Often, inter cropping is chosen as an insurance against the risk of the main crop failure or to ensure a stability of crop yields in variable environments (Andrews & Kassam, 1976; Beets, 1982) [1,2] . Annual crops such as cereals except rice, pulses, oil seeds, vegetables, flowers, tobacco, cotton, biennials like sugarcane and banana, perennial crops like papaya and pineapple, fodder crops etc. are grown as inter crop during the juvenile phase. Crops like cocoa, Java long pepper, black pepper, banana, pineapple, heliconia, red ginger are grown in mature oil palm plantations (Ramachandrudu et al., 2018) [13] . Wide scope exists for growing intercrops by utilizing both horizontal and vertical space, available sunlight and shade in oil palm plantations, to attain more net income from unit area (Ramachandrudu et al., 2018; Lithourgidis et al., 2011) [10,13] . However, of late farmers have been facing problems while growing intercrops in oil palm and forcing them to uproot intercrops. Intercrops were removed in an area of 248 ha in oil palm, recorded during the study. This paper is an attempt to identify the reasons for uprooting of intercrop and present them as per the perception of oil palm growers. Garrett's Ranking Technique (Garrett & Woodworth, 1969) [8] is used to identify reasons for uprooting of intercrops in oil palm as per the perceived priority given by the oil palm farmers of Andhra Pradesh.
Garret's Ranking Technique
This method used to find the most significant factor which had influenced the respondent for the perceived reason. In this Garret's Ranking technique, the respondents ranked different problems and outcome based on their impact thereby converting into score value and rank with the help of the following formula:
Where; Rij = Rankgivenfor the ith variable byjth respondents Nj = Number of variable ranked by jth respondents
The Percent Positions and Garrett value
The Garret ranks were calculated by using appropriate Garret Ranking formula. The based on the Garret ranks, the garret value was calculated. The Garret tables and scores of each reasons/problems in the above table, and multiplied to records scores in next table, finally by adding each row, the total Garret score were obtained.
Results and Discussion www.extensionjournal.com 1 represent the distribution of the 90 surveyed respondents based on their size of landholding.
The results indicate that the majority of farmers (34%) belonged to the small farmers, followed by 32% medium farmers (2.1-4 ha) category, 19% are large farmers, while 15% are under marginal farmers. Overall, the findings reveal that most of the respondents (66%) belong to small and medium landholders, reflecting the dominance of relatively smaller to medium farm sizes in the study area.
Application of the Garret's Ranking Technique
An attempt has been made to find out the reasons for uprooting of intercrops in oil palm by the farmers. The identified reasons for uprooting intercrops in oil palm are ranked by making use of the Garrett's Ranking Technique. The technique was used to rank the perceived preference opined by the respondent oil palm growers on different factors and aspects of uprooting intercrops in oil palm. With the help of Garrett's Table, the percent position estimated is converted into scores by referring to the table given by Garret and Woodworth (1969) [8] . Then for each factor, the scores of each individual are added and then total value of scores and mean values of score is calculated. The factors having highest mean value is considered to be the most important factor, in that order ranking was obtained. Ageing of intercrop 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 3 0 9 10 19 42 Intercrop become un productive 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 7 1 3 7 4 3 14 6 4 6 3 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 0 Influence of neighbors 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 2 7 4 2 4 8 5 4 8 8 15 14 4 www.extensionjournal.com
Dropping of intercrop price 1 2 5 8 7 1 4 4 2 8 5 5 0 6 7 0 1 5 5 1 1 1 3 3 2 1 0 1 1 0 Raise in labour wages 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 3 7 6 7 13 7 3 9 3 3 4 4 2 2 6 2 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 Costly inputs 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 8 6 9 5 2 10 8 8 1 4 3 7 1 2 2 2 3 0 3 0 0 0 Marketing problem 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 1 4 5 7 6 5 4 10 6 2 7 10 8 1 1 2 3 0 0 Ignorance of intercrop management 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 3 2 3 4 4 10 11 9 4 15 8 11
Oil palm become more remunerative 0 3 6 11 13 13 4 7 4 10 2 3 2 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 Land holdings become less due to distribution among family members. 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 4 3 8 5 7 5 8 10 6 4 9 4 4 0 0 Oil palm yield increased due to removal of intercrop 19 19 10 12 4 6 7 0 1 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Tedious processing of intercrops 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 3 6 5 4 4 6 16 10 8 6 7 4 3 2 No proper marketing 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 6 3 4 3 8 3 4 6 15 8 7 7 8
Calculation of Garret Value and Ranking:
The calculation of Garrett value and ranking of problems faced by oil palm growers were calculated were given here under in Table .3. Ranking obtained based on the total scores, for the problems expressed by the oil palm growers for uprooting of intercrop were calculated and furnished here under in Table 4.
Height of oil palm
As oil palm attains greater height with age, intercrop operations become increasingly difficult. The tall stature reduces accessibility for intercrop monitoring, spraying, and harvesting activities. Farmers reported that taller palms create physical and management challenges in the inter-row spaces. This ultimately discourages continuation of intercrops in mature plantations.
Obstruction to harvesting of oil palm (Pole/climbing)
Intercrops often obstruct the movement of workers involved in FFB harvesting of oil palm using poles or climbing methods. Dense intercrop vegetation restricts visibility and reduces working space around the palm base. Farmers perceive that intercrops delay their harvesting operations, manoeuvrability and increase labour requirements. Hence, intercrops are removed to facilitate smooth FFB harvesting.
Falling of oil palm leaves on intercrop
Dry and senescent oil palm fronds frequently fall into intercrop plots, causing mechanical disturbance. This problem becomes more severe during windy conditions and pruning operations. Farmers reported that fallen leaves cover intercrop plants, often break the branches and twigs of cocoa plants. Sometimes obstruct and reduce light availability. Repeated cleaning increases labour and cost, leading to intercrop removal.
Damage to intercrop due to oil palm leaves
Oil palm fronds falling on intercrops cause physical injury such as stem breakage, leaf tearing, and uprooting of young plants. Crops like cocoa, banana and spices are particularly affected due to their tender growth habit. Farmers indicated that repeated damage reduces yield and increases replanting costs. This makes intercropping economically unattractive.
Increased cost of cultivation of intercrops
Farmers reported that the cost of intercrop cultivation has increased due to higher labour wages, costly inputs, and additional maintenance requirements. Intercrops require frequent weeding, irrigation, plant protection, and pruning.
In mature oil palm plantations, operations become more complex and costly. As a result, farmers often discontinue intercrops to reduce financial burden.
Monkey problem:
In parts of Andhra Pradesh, especially in Eluru and East Godavari districts, farmers have been traditionally growing cocoa as intercrop in oil palm plantations to doubling income. However, rising monkey attacks have become a major issue, causing significant crop damage and financial loss. Monkeys are frequently seen plucking and damaging cocoa pods before harvest. They also break branches and uproot young plants, which hamper growth and reduce yield. Farmers report that guarding the plantations or installing barriers is both expensive and ineffective in affected areas. Due to the continuous losses and difficulty in controlling the problem, many farmers in Andhra Pradesh have started removing cocoa from their oil palm plantations. Some are shifting to other intercrops that are less attractive to monkeys, while others are avoiding intercropping altogether to reduce labor and cost. This growing wildlife conflict is now influencing farm decisions in cocoa-growing areas of the state. The monkey menace has become a key reason for the decline of cocoa cultivation under oil palm, forcing a change in traditional farming practices.
Drudgery
Intercropping increases the workload to farm families due to multiple crop management activities. Farmers reported that repeated operations like pruning, weeding, harvesting, and cleaning fallen fronds cause physical strain. In addition, the need for constant monitoring increases drudgery, especially for women and elderly farmers. This discourages continuation of intercrops.
Labour shortage
Shortage of skilled and unskilled labour has become a serious problem in oil palm-based intercropping systems. Farmers reported difficulty in hiring labour during peak periods for intercrop harvesting and oil palm operations. Labour scarcity leads to delayed cultural operations, resulting in yield loss. Consequently, farmers prefer monocropping to reduce labour dependency.
Loss in intercrop / Not remunerative
Farmers perceived that intercrops are no longer profitable due to low yields and market fluctuations. Input costs often exceed the income generated from intercrops. In several cases, intercrops are unsuccessful to provide expected supplementary returns. Therefore, farmers opted to uproot intercrops and focus on oil palm alone.
Ageing of intercrop
Perennial intercrops such as cocoa become aged over time, leading to decline in productivity. Farmers reported that old plants show reduced flowering and fruit set, resulting in poor yields. Rejuvenation or replanting requires additional investment and time. Hence, many farmers remove the intercrop instead of renewing it.
Intercrop becomes unproductive
Intercrops gradually become less productive due to dense shade, nutrient competition, and ageing. Farmers observed reduced crop vigour and yield over successive years. The decline in productivity affects net returns and discourages continued cultivation. Thus, intercrops are uprooted when they fail to provide economic benefit. www.extensionjournal.com
Neighbours removed hence we removed
Farmers reported that intercrop removal decisions are mostly influenced by neighbouring farmers. When nearby oil palm growers uproot intercrops, others follow assuming it improves oil palm yield or reduces problems. This social influence contributes to adoption of monocropping practices. Such collective decisions are common in closely located oil palm farming communities.
Intercrop price fallen
Market price decline of intercrops was reported as a major reason for discontinuation. Farmers observed that reduced selling price does not compensate for cultivation and harvesting costs. Price instability increases financial risk and discourages investment. Hence, farmers uproot intercrops when market returns become uncertain.
Rise in labour wages
Increasing labour wages have raised the cost of intercrop cultivation considerably. Intercrops require frequent labourintensive activities such as harvesting, pruning, and plant protection. Farmers reported that wage hikes reduce profit margins even if yield is good. This leads to preference for oil palm monocropping.
Inputs become costly
The rising cost of fertilizers, pesticides, planting material, and irrigation has reduced the profitability of intercrops. Farmers reported that intercrops demand additional nutrient and pest management investments. High input costs without assured market price results in economic loss. Hence, intercrops are removed to reduce farm expenditure.
Marketing problem
Farmers reported difficulties in selling intercrop produce due to lack of organized markets and price assurance. Middlemen dominance and transport costs further reduce profit. Marketing fluctuations in cocoa pose a major constraint due to unstable market prices and lack of assured procurement mechanisms. Farmers often face sudden price drops during peak harvest seasons, leading to reduced profitability and financial insecurity. The absence of regulated markets and limited access to real-time price information further weakens farmers' bargaining power. As a result, cocoa growers are compelled to depend on local traders, often resulting in distress sales and lower returns. These constraints compel farmers to discontinue intercrops.
Ignorance of intercrop management
Many farmers lack adequate technical knowledge on intercrop-specific management practices. Improper pruning, over/under fertilizer application, and pest control lead to poor performance of intercrops. Farmers reported that extension support for intercrops is limited compared to oil palm. Due to low confidence and inadequate skills, intercrops are removed.
Oil palm becomes more remunerative
Farmers perceived oil palm as a more stable and assured income crop compared to intercrops. With improved yields and assured procurement by processing mills, oil palm profitability increased. Farmers felt that intercrops divert resources and attention from oil palm management. Therefore, many prefer to concentrate only on oil palm cultivation.
Land holdings become less due to distribution among family members: Farmers reported that land fragmentation due to division among family members reduced the available area for diversified cropping. Smaller holdings require simplified management and reduced labour burden. Intercropping becomes difficult in fragmented land due to limited spacing and operational constraints. Hence, farmers remove intercrops to manage oil palm efficiently.
Oil palm yield increased due to removal of intercrop Some farmers perceived that removal of intercrops improved oil palm yield due to reduced competition for nutrients, moisture, and light. Intercrops might have also restrict irrigation distribution and nutrient use efficiency.
Farmers perceived yield improvement as a direct benefit of monocropping. This belief encourages uprooting of intercrops.
Processing of intercrops becomes tedious
Intercrop produce such as cocoa often requires fermentation, drying and grading. Farmers reported that processing is time-consuming and requires skill and infrastructure. Without proper facilities, processing becomes burdensome and reduces net profit. Hence, farmers avoid intercrops that require post-harvest processing.
No proper marketing
In many regions, farmers lack access to reliable buyers and organized supply chains for intercrops. Price fluctuations and delayed payments create dissatisfaction. Farmers reported that they cannot store produce for long periods due to perishability. Therefore, marketing uncertainty becomes a strong reason for uprooting intercrops.
Want to focus on oil palm cultivation
Farmers expressed that managing intercrops reduces attention toward oil palm nutrient management, irrigation, and harvesting schedules. Intercropping increases complexity in farm planning and labour allocation. Since oil palm is a long-term high-value crop, farmers prioritize its management. Thus, intercrops are removed to reduce management burden.
Over shading
As oil palm canopy expands, shading increases and light availability for intercrops declines. Shade-sensitive crops exhibit reduced growth, flowering, and yield under low light conditions. Farmers observed progressive yield decline of intercrops with palm age. Therefore, intercrops are uprooted when shading becomes severe.
Piling of oil palm fronds in intercrop row
Pruned oil palm fronds are often piled between rows as part of biomass management. Farmers reported that frond piling occupies intercrop space and obstructs intercrop operations. It also creates favourable habitat for pests, snakes and rodents. Hence, intercrops are removed to allow proper frond management. www.extensionjournal.com
Problem in movement of tractor
Intercropping restricts tractor movement for pesticide spraying and FFB collection. Farmers reported that intercrops narrow the working space and increase operational difficulty. Mechanization becomes inefficient and sometimes impossible in dense intercropped space. Therefore, intercrops are removed to facilitate machinery operations.
Crowding of cropping system
Farmers perceived that intercropping leads to overcrowding and poor field aeration. Crowded systems increase competition for water and nutrients, affecting both main crop and intercrop performance. It also complicates intercultural operations and harvesting. Thus, farmers remove intercrops to avoid congestion.
Snakes or rats problem
Farmers reported increased incidence of snakes and rodents in intercropped gardens due to dense vegetation and frond piles. These pests pose safety risks to labourers and cause damage to crops. Rodents may feed on fruits, pods, and tender stems of intercrops. Due to fear and crop loss, farmers uproot intercrops.
Poor yield of intercrop
Low yield of intercrops was frequently reported due to over shade, pest incidence, and poor soil fertility. Farmers might have perceived that intercrops do not perform well in mature plantations compared to juvenile stages. Reduced yield results in poor net income and wastage of resources. Hence, intercrops are removed when productivity becomes uneconomical.
Social Issues
Farmers reported that social conflicts related to labour sharing, boundary disputes, and theft of intercrop produce affect intercrop cultivation. Some intercrops attract outsiders, increasing risk of pilferage. Disagreements among family members over labour allocation and income sharing also influence decisions. Such social constraints contribute to discontinuation and uprooting of intercropping.
Conclusion
The Garrett Ranking Technique was considered appropriate for identifying the major reasons for uprooting intercrops in oil palm plantations and the associated constraints. This method is particularly useful because it converts respondents' preference-based rankings into mean scores, enabling the identification of the most critical factors based on the highest mean value. Initially, the respondents provided their preferential order for the listed problems without any predetermined ranking. These problems were systematically identified through in-depth interviews with farmers. The final ranking results clearly reflected the priority concerns perceived by farmers regarding intercrop management in oil palm-based cropping systems. In order to use the resources efficiently, the policy and research focus need to be given on the above aspects for successful adoption of intercrops in oil palm based cropping system.
Acknowledgement
AcknowledgementsResearch was supported by the lndian Council of Agricultural Research, Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Government of lndia.
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