Integrated nutrient management and its impact on soil health, nutrient use efficiency and crop productivity

Introduction

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) has emerged as a key strategy for sustainable agriculture, aiming to maintain soil fertility, enhance crop productivity, and minimize environmental degradation through the balanced integration of organic, inorganic, and biological nutrient sources ( wherein nutrient application strategies are tailored according to soil test values, crop type, climatic conditions, and locally available resources. This targeted approach improves nutrient recovery, minimizes losses, and enhances crop productivity. Furthermore, INM maintains a strong sustainability focus, aiming to improve soil organic matter content, stimulate biological activity, and protect environmental quality while ensuring economic feasibility and long-term agricultural productivity (Selim, 2020; Kumari et al., 2025; Yadav et al., 2025; Shahid, 2024) [24,49,54,66,71] .

Integrated nutrient management and soil health: effects on physical, chemical, biological properties and carbon sequestration Soil physical properties Across different crops and soil types, Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), which combines organic amendments, mineral fertilizers, and sometimes biofertilizers, has been shown to significantly improve soil physical properties. Long-term application of INM practices generally reduces soil bulk density while increasing soil porosity and water-holding capacity due to enhanced soil organic matter and improved aggregation. Although short-term studies sometimes report only numerical improvements, treatments involving farmyard manure (FYM) or vermicompost combined with recommended doses of NPK fertilizers often show lower bulk density and higher waterholding capacity compared with the sole use of chemical fertilizers, even when differences are not always statistically significant (Madhurya et al., 2022; Bindu et al., 2024; Meena et al., 2016) [7,16,29,31,36,38] . Higher application rates of composted manures can further enhance soil structural properties, particularly in arid and semiarid environments. These organic inputs promote the formation of stable soil aggregates, increase total porosity, improve hydraulic conductivity, and enhance soil water-holding capacity. Overall, INM contributes to the development of more stable soil aggregates and greater macroaggregate formation, thereby improving soil aeration, infiltration, and resistance to compaction compared with systems relying solely on mineral fertilizers (Al-Suhaibani et al., 2020; Sandhu et al., 2020; Nath et al., 2023; Kurmi et al., 2025) [29,38,51] . [3,16,36,43] . Long-term experiments in cropping systems such as maizewheat and rice-wheat have demonstrated that integrating FYM with mineral fertilizers can increase soil organic carbon from approximately 0.4-0.5% to about 0.6-0.7%, along with higher levels of available N, P, and K. These systems also show improved concentrations of DTPA-extractable micronutrients, including zinc, copper, iron, and manganese (Dhaliwal et al., 2021; Sandhu et al., 2020 [7,16,31,36,51,67] . [16,20,32,43,67] .

Soil chemical properties

Soil organic carbon sequestration

Integrated nutrient management also contributes significantly to soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration and long-term soil sustainability. Long-term rice-wheat experiments have demonstrated that replacing a portion of mineral nitrogen with organic sources such as FYM, green manure, or crop residues increases SOC stocks and carbon sequestration rates. For instance, SOC sequestration rates of approximately 0.29 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ have been reported under integrated nutrient management compared with about 0.13 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ under sole NPK fertilization (Sandhu et al., 2020) [51] . Very long-term experiments spanning more than three decades across different soil orders have further confirmed sustained increases in total organic carbon, particulate organic carbon, and microbial biomass carbon, along with higher carbon management indices under INM practices (Das et al., 2025). In addition, short-to medium-term studies in rice-based and arid cropping systems indicate that the incorporation of organic manures and composts within integrated nutrient management strategies increases SOC stocks and enhances carbon sequestration potential in agricultural soils (Urmi et al., 2022; Al-Suhaibani et al., 2020) [3,15,69] .

Integrated Nutrient Management and Nutrient Use Efficiency

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) is widely recognized for improving nutrient use efficiency (NUE) of major nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and micronutrients, while simultaneously reducing nutrient losses compared with sole chemical fertilization. NUE refers to the efficiency with which applied nutrients are converted into crop yield and can be expressed through different indices, including agronomic efficiency, apparent recovery efficiency, physiological efficiency, and utilization efficiency (Begizew, 2020; Congreves et al., 2021). It integrates both nutrient uptake efficiency, which represents the ability of plant roots to capture nutrients from the soil, and utilization efficiency, which reflects the capacity of plants to convert absorbed nutrients into biomass or economic yield (Begizew, 2020; Congreves et al., 2021) [5,13] . Studies across various cropping systems have demonstrated that INM enhances nitrogen use efficiency by increasing fertilizeruse efficiency and apparent nitrogen recovery. Integrated approaches involving the combined application of organic manures, mineral fertilizers, and biofertilizers often allow up to 50% reduction in mineral nitrogen application without yield reduction, particularly in systems such as rice-wheat, wheat, cotton-greengram, and rice (Darjee et [5,6,14,37,46,69] . Integrated nutrient management further enhances the use efficiency of phosphorus and potassium by improving nutrient uptake and availability. Substitution of 25-50% of mineral nitrogen with organic sources such as farmyard manure, gliricidia, or compost, in combination with biofertilizers, has been shown to increase NUE of N, P, and K in various cropping systems. Additionally, the integration of organic amendments with mineral fertilizers improves phosphorus fractionation and increases labile phosphorus pools in soil, thereby enhancing phosphorus availability and utilization by crops ( [9,37,43,46] . Long-term application of INM also improves the availability and uptake of micronutrients such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn). Studies have reported increased DTPA-extractable micronutrient concentrations and improved nutrient translocation from vegetative plant parts to grains under integrated nutrient management practices compared with sole NPK fertilization (Bhardwaj et al., 2023; Selim, 2021; Saha et al., 2019) [48] . Several mechanisms explain the positive influence of INM on nutrient use efficiency. The synchronization of nutrient supply with crop demand is improved through the combined use of slow-release organic sources and readily available mineral fertilizers, thereby reducing nutrient losses and enhancing uptake efficiency (Bhardwaj et al., 2023; Begizew, 2020; Selim, 2021). INM also promotes soil biological activity and carbon availability, which enhances nutrient mineralization, enzyme activity, and nutrient cycling, particularly for nitrogen and phosphorus ( Furthermore, organic amendments help to reduce phosphorus fixation by forming complexes with iron and aluminum in the soil and increasing labile and organically bound phosphorus fractions, thereby improving phosphorus use efficiency in ricebased cropping systems (Singh et al., 2025) [5,6,43] .

Integrated Nutrient Management in Cropping Systems:

Focus on Cereals, Pulses/Oilseeds, Horticulture, and Cropping Sequences Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) refers to the judicious and combined use of organic, inorganic, and biological nutrient sources to sustain crop productivity, maintain soil health, enhance profitability, and minimize environmental pollution. In recent years, INM has increasingly been advocated at the cropping system level rather than for individual crops, as system-based nutrient strategies improve nutrient cycling, resource-use efficiency, and long-term sustainability.

Growth of INM Research across Crops and Systems

The scientific literature on INM has expanded steadily over the past decade, reflecting growing interest in sustainable nutrient management. Early work documented system-level benefits in cereal-based rotations. Subsequent studies strengthened evidence on yield enhancement, soil quality improvement, and economic returns. More recent research highlights diversified cropping systems, climate-smart nutrient strategies, and the role of biological inputs (Mangaraj et [16,22,23,24,30,33,39,53,54,65,66,71] .

INM in Cereal-Based Cropping Systems

In cereal systems such as rice, wheat, maize, and barley, INM consistently improves grain yield, soil organic carbon (SOC), microbial biomass, and soil physical properties compared with sole chemical fertilization ( [4,16,24,43,49,53] .

INM in Pulse and Oilseed Cropping Systems

System-based INM practices also enhance productivity in pulseand oilseed-based rotations. In peanut-wheat systems, the application of 75-100% recommended fertilizer dose (RDF) combined with FYM and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) significantly increased system productivity, profitability, and net energy returns (Jat et al., 2023). Inclusion of legumes, such as greengram in rice-greengram sequences, under INM regimes (e.g., 50% RDF through fertilizers and 50% N through FYM along with phosphate-solubilizing bacteria) has been shown to improve soil nutrient balance and overall system performance due to biological nitrogen fixation and residual nutrient effects (Mangaraj et al., 2022; Suchitha et al., 2025) [23,33,65] .

INM in Horticultural and Cash Crop Systems

In horticultural crops and cash crops such as cotton, sugarcane, and potato, INM improves yield attributes, nutrient uptake efficiency, produce quality, and physiological performance while reducing nutrient leaching and greenhouse gas emissions (Paramesh et [43,66] .

INM in Cropping Sequences, Rotations, and Intercropping

System-level nutrient management strategies involving crop rotations, sequential cropping, and intercropping are increasingly recognized as more sustainable than single-crop fertilization approaches. The incorporation of legumes into cereal-dominated systems enhances nitrogen availability, improves utilization of residual nutrients, and stabilizes yields under rainfed conditions. Moreover, recent reviews emphasize that aligning INM practices with crop rotation patterns, intercropping arrangements, and local agro-ecological conditions can optimize nutrient cycling of macro-and micronutrients while reducing reactive nitrogen losses and greenhouse gas emissions (Paramesh et [4,33,65] .

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) as a pillar of sustainable, climate-smart agriculture

Role in Climate-Smart Agriculture INM is widely described as a climate-smart strategy: it maintains yields while reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and enhancing resilience. Reviews report 8-150% yield increases vs. conventional fertilizer use, alongside higher water-use efficiency and better grain quality and soil health ( [35,43,49,71] . [42,43,49,69] .

Reduction in Environmental Pollution

Soil Fertility Sustainability & Long-Term Productivity

Repeated INM applications build soil organic matter, improve bulk density, aggregation and water-holding capacity, and enhance microbial activity, sustaining fertility over time (Paramesh et [4,12,43,69] .

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM): Economic Benefits

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) contributes significantly to farm profitability and economic sustainability by improving crop yields, enhancing fertilizer-use efficiency, and reducing dependence on costly chemical fertilizers. Systematic evidence across cereals, pulses, oilseeds, and horticultural crops indicates that INM generally increases the benefit-cost (B:C) ratio and farmer income, often at comparable or even reduced input costs.

Cost-Benefit Ratio and Profitability

Numerous studies demonstrate that INM or optimized nutrient management practices enhance profitability by 10-20% or more compared with farmers' conventional fertilizer practices, largely due to higher productivity and improved nutrient-use efficiency (Chivenge et al., 2021; Gholkar et al., 2022; Gyanwali et al., 2022; Paramesh et al., 2023; Sarwar et al., 2023; Ren et al., 2025; Manohar et al., 2025). Long-term experimental evidence supports these findings. In a 40-year rice-wheat system, the INM treatment comprising 50% inorganic nitrogen and 50% farmyard manure (FYM) in rice followed by 100% recommended fertilizer dose (RDF) in wheat recorded the highest net returns and B:C ratio, highlighting the economic superiority of integrated nutrient strategies over fertilizer-only approaches (Manohar et al., 2025). Similarly, in rice-rice systems in India, the combined use of FYM and chemical fertilizers increased net returns from USD 1508 to USD 1776 ha⁻¹, along with improvements in soil quality and energy-use efficiency (Paramesh et al., 2023). In maize-wheat cropping systems, the application of 75% recommended NPK combined with biochar enhanced system productivity and economic sustainability relative to full mineral fertilization (Sarwar et al., 2023) [11,19,21,34,43,53] .

Reduction in Fertilizer Input Costs

A major economic advantage of INM is the partial substitution of mineral fertilizers with locally available organic inputs, which reduces fertilizer expenditure without compromising yield. Farmer-participatory nutrient management trials in wheat reported a 24.7% reduction in fertilizer use and a 15.6% decrease in fertilizer cost compared with conventional farmer practices (Ren et al., 2025). Meta-analytical evidence on sitespecific nutrient management sharing similar objectives with INM shows that optimizing fertilizer inputs can reduce nitrogen application by about 10% while increasing profitability by 15% across major cereal crops such as maize, rice, and wheat (Chivenge et al., 2021). Review studies further emphasize that INM is a cost-effective nutrient management approach, as the use of manures, crop residues, and biofertilizers lowers reliance on purchased fertilizers and stabilizes production costs (Selim, 2020; Chejara et al., 2021; Saini et al., 2025; Kamboj et al., 2024) [10,11,24,49] .

Effects on Farmer Income

By combining higher yields with optimized input costs, INM directly contributes to increased net farm income and livelihood security. In wheat, farmer-participatory nutrient management increased net income by 14.5% (approximately USD 236 ha⁻¹) compared with farmers' standard fertilizer practice (Ren et al., 2025). In vegetable production, cauliflower grown with 50% NPK combined with vermicompost achieved a B:C ratio of 3.19, allowing a 50% reduction in chemical fertilizer use without sacrificing profitability (Gyanwali et al., 2022) [21] . Similarly, intercropping systems benefit economically from INM practices. For instance, mungbean-sorghum intercropping with compost or FYM integrated with nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers produced the highest net income (about PKR 225,000 ha⁻¹) and a B:C ratio of around 1.9, outperforming other nutrient management options (Fayyaz et al., 2024) [18] .

Synthesis

Overall, the economic evidence indicates that INM enhances resource-use efficiency, yield stability, profitability, and longterm soil productivity, making it a financially viable and environmentally sustainable nutrient management strategy for diverse cropping systems (Selim, 2020 [11,24,43,49,54] .

Constraints and Challenges in Adoption of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

Despite the proven agronomic, economic, and environmental advantages of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), its largescale adoption remains constrained by several practical and institutional challenges. One of the major limitations is the limited availability and inconsistent quality of organic nutrient sources, such as farmyard manure, compost, crop residues, and biofertilizers. In many regions, these inputs are either insufficient to meet crop nutrient demand or are diverted for alternative uses such as fuel or livestock feed. Another significant constraint is the lack of awareness, technical knowledge, and skill among farmers regarding balanced nutrient application and integrated approaches. Adoption of INM requires understanding of nutrient synchronization, soil testing, and appropriate combinations of organic, inorganic, and biological inputs. Inadequate training and weak extension support often result in continued reliance on conventional fertilizer practices. INM practices are also associated with higher labour requirements and time consumption, particularly for collection, preparation, transport, and application of bulky organic materials. Smallholder farmers with limited labour resources may therefore prefer readily available mineral fertilizers. Furthermore, policy and institutional gaps hinder the widespread implementation of INM. Limited incentives for organic input production, inadequate supply chains for biofertilizers, weak soil-testing infrastructure, and insufficient integration of INM into national nutrient management programs restrict its adoption. Strengthening extension services, market linkages, and policy support is therefore essential for scaling up INM-based systems.

Future Prospects and Research Needs

Future research and development efforts should focus on improving the efficiency, scalability, and farmer acceptability of INM strategies. One promising direction is the integration of precision nutrient management technologies, including sensorbased nutrient diagnostics, decision-support tools, and variablerate fertilizer application. These approaches can optimize nutrient use efficiency and reduce environmental losses. The development and validation of nano-fertilizers and advanced biofertilizers also offer significant potential for enhancing nutrient availability, crop productivity, and stress tolerance while reducing input requirements. Research is needed to assess their long-term impacts on soil health, nutrient cycling, and environmental safety. Another important priority is digital soil fertility mapping and geospatial nutrient management planning, which can support site-specific recommendations and improve fertilizer-use efficiency at regional and national scales. Integration of remote sensing, GIS, and big-data analytics can facilitate real-time monitoring of soil fertility trends and nutrient balances. In addition, policy support for sustainable nutrient management is crucial. This includes incentives for organic resource recycling, promotion of integrated nutrient packages, strengthening soil-testing services, and capacity building through farmer training and participatory research. Long-term system-based experiments are also needed to evaluate the cumulative impacts of INM on productivity, soil carbon sequestration, nutrient-use efficiency, and climate resilience. [24,66,69,71] [42,43,69] Crop productivity and farm economics Enhances crop yield (often 8-150%), improves nutrient-use efficiency (NUE), reduces dependence on chemical fertilizers and input costs, and increases net returns and benefit-cost ratio in diversified cropping systems.

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