Herbal nanomedications: A next generation approach to neurodegenerative diseases

Introduction

The progressive loss of neurons and their roles in the Central Nervous System (CNS) is a hallmark of a wide range of progressive disorders known as neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), prion disorders, and spinocerebellar ataxias are a few notable instances. Pathological pathways that lead to neuronal death and irreversible impairments in cognition, motor abilities, and behavior are shared by many disorders. Many mechanisms include aberrant protein aggregation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuro inflammation, and synaptic failure. Millions of people worldwide are impacted by NDs, which significantly increase death and disability. The biggest risk factor is still aging, but environmental and genetic factors also play a role in the development and course of disease. Due to extended life expectancies, NDs have a significant and growing global impact; by 2050, AD alone is expected to impact over 130 million people. As of 2021, neurological illnesses accounted for 443 million Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), making them the world's greatest cause of illness and disability. This highlights the serious public health and societal challenges they provide. The progressive loss of neurons and their roles in the Central Nervous System (CNS) is a hallmark of a class of severe illnesses known as neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, prion disorders, and spinocerebellar ataxias are a few prominent examples. These conditions are similar in that they cause aberrant protein accumulation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial issues, brain inflammation, and nerve connection failure, which results in cell death and long-term memory, mobility, and behavior deficits. Millions are affected globally by NDs, which result in death and severe disability. Although aging is the primary risk factor, environmental and genetic factors also contribute. By 2050, Alzheimer's alone is predicted to touch about 130 million individuals. The burden of NDs is expanding quickly due to longer life expectancies. Since neurological illnesses caused 443 million Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in 2021, they are now the biggest cause of illness and disability worldwide, placing a heavy strain on society and health systems. [Lamptey et al., 2022] [6] [Selvam et al., 2024] [7] . The limitations of existing treatments may be overcome by herbal nanomedicines. The beneficial effects of natural products on the brain, such as their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, are well recognized. Nevertheless, a lot of plant chemicals have problems with instability, poor absorption, rapid breakdown, poor solubility, and trouble getting to the brain. Delivery technologies based on nanotechnology, such as lipid and polymeric nanoparticles, nanoliposomes, and nanoemulsions, aid in enhancing the physiological behavior of these herbal ingredients and more precisely delivering them to the brain. In addition to protecting the active substances, these nanocarriers increase solubility, regulate release, and facilitate blood-brain barrier crossing. Herbal medicine and nanotechnology together provide a potent, secure new treatment option for neurodegenerative illnesses. [Moradi et al., 2020] [8] [Panda and Mohapatra, 2024] [9] .

What are neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) represent a group of chronic disorders in which nerve cells in the central nervous system (CNS) gradually deteriorate and die, leading to continuous decline in movement, memory, thinking, and overall daily functioning. Some of the most common examples include Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), spinal muscular atrophy, and spinocerebellar ataxia. Despite their different clinical presentations, these conditions share key biological features such as the build-up of misfolded proteins (like amyloidbeta plaques and tau tangles in AD), excessive oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, chronic inflammation, excitotoxicity, and impaired communication between neurons. Together, these factors drive irreversible neuronal death. The development of NDs is influenced by multiple risk factors including advancing age, genetic vulnerability, and environmental triggers. Patients typically experience progressive symptoms such as memory impairment, movement difficulties, behavioral and emotional changes, and loss of automatic body functions, leading to significant disability, reduced quality of life, and a growing global healthcare and economic burden. [Goyal et al., 2024] [1] [Bhattacharya et al., 2022] [27] .

Fig 1: Nuerodegenerative Disease

Herbal Nanomedications in Neurodegeneration

Herbal nanomedicines represent a novel and promising therapeutic strategy for addressing the complex pathogenesis and treatment challenges of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Neurodegeneration is driven by multiple molecular mechanisms, including oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, protein misfolding, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis. Conventional pharmacological treatments often face significant limitations, such as poor bioavailability, limited ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), off-target toxicity, and inability to simultaneously modulate multiple pathogenic pathways. Herbal-based nanomedicines integrate the neuroprotective properties of phytochemicals with the advantages of nanotechnology, including improved solubility, enhanced stability, targeted delivery, controlled release, and effective BBB penetration, thereby optimizing pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles. [Moradi et al., 2020] [8] [Panda and Mohapatra, 2024] [9] A number of natural product-derived nanoparticle carriers, often enriched with herbal extracts, have been thoroughly studied. Familiar herbal components found within these nanosystems include curcumin, quercetin, resveratrol, piperine, ginkgolides from Ginkgo biloba, and thymoquinone from Nigella sativa. These formulations boast a variety of neuroprotective attributes ranging from antioxidant to anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and antiamyloidogenic effects which are crucial for addressing neurodegenerative diseases. For instance, nanoparticles of curcumin have demonstrated increased brain uptake and have been shown to inhibit the aggregation of amyloid-beta in Alzheimer's disease models. Likewise, quercetin nanoparticles can help reduce oxidative stress and neuronal cell death. [Moradi et al., 2020] [8] [Panda and Mohapatra, 2024] [9] [Nahar et al., 2025] [3] Nanoparticle carriers made from natural products or containing herbal extracts have been widely researched. Some commonly used herbal compounds in these nano systems are curcumin, quercetin, resveratrol, piperine, ginkgolides from Ginkgo biloba, and thymoquinone from Nigella sativa. These herbal nano formulations offer a range of protective benefits for the brain, such as fighting oxidative damage, reducing inflammation, preventing cell death, and stopping harmful protein buildup all important in addressing neurodegenerative diseases. For example, curcumin nanoparticles show better ability to reach the brain and can inhibit the buildup of amyloid-beta plaques linked to Alzheimer's disease, while quercetin nanoparticles help lower oxidative stress and protect nerve cells from dying. [Izadi et al., 2024] [4] [Bhattacharya et al., 2022] [27] While herbal nanomedicines hold great promise for treating neurodegenerative diseases, there are still some challenges to overcome. These include concerns about the potential toxicity of nanoparticles, uneven distribution in the brain, variations in the composition of plant extracts, and difficulties in producing these nanomedicines at a large scale. Current research focuses on improving the size, surface properties, and targeting capabilities of nanoparticles to increase their precision and safety, alongside using advanced methods for thorough analysis and clinical testing. [Moradi et al., 2020] [8] [Panda and Mohapatra, 2024] [9] [Bhattacharya et al., 2022] [27] Nano carriers Nano carriers are tiny delivery systems that play a vital role in getting medicines exactly where they need to go in the brain, especially for treating neurodegenerative diseases. They help make herbal medicines easier to dissolve, protect these medicines from breaking down too soon, help them pass through the blood brain barrier, and release the medicine right at the affected site. All these features are really important because neurodegenerative diseases are complex and need precise treatment. . [Moradi et al., 2020] [8] [Dhariwal et al., 2025] [12] Some nanocarriers are discussed below a) Polymeric Nanoparticles: Polymer nanoparticles (PNPs) are tiny particles made from safe, biodegradable materials like Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid), chitosan, and Polylactic Acid. They provide controlled, long-lasting drug release and can be customized on the surface to target specific areas. Their solid structure protects the medicine inside from breaking down too soon. [Moradi et al., 2020] [8] [Panda and Mohapatra, 2024] [9] [Dhariwal et al., 2025] [12] b) Liposomes: Small round bubbles made of natural fat layers that can hold water-loving drugs inside their watery center or fat-loving drugs within their fatty walls. They are safe for the body and can carry various types of medicines. c) Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Made from solid fats, these particles are stable and release medicines slowly over time. d) Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: An improved version of SLNs with a mix of different fats, helping carry more medicine and preventing it from leaking out. e) Nanoemulsions: Tiny droplets of oil dispersed in water using special stabilizers, which help dissolve medicines that do not mix easily with water. [Dhariwal et al., 2025] [12] [Panda and Mohapatra, 2024] [9] [Izadi et al., 2024] [4] f) Nanomicelles: Nanomicelles are tiny, self-organizing structures formed from the amphiphilic molecules. Their unique design allows to carry drugs that don't dissolve well in water, making these drugs easier for body to absorb. Nanomicelles are an effective way to transport sensitive medications to where they are mostly needed in the body. [Moradi et al., 2020] [8] [Bhattacharya et al., 2022] [27] g) Inorganic Nanoparticles: These types of nanoparticles are having special optical, magnetic and structural features that make them highly useful for medical imaging, targeted therapy and controlled drug release. [Panda and Mohapatra, 2024] [9] [Izadi et al., 2024] [4] h) Phytosomes and Nanophytosomes: these are the specialized form of lipid-based carriers, which are designed to boost both the absorption and stability of herbal extract. They form a complex between the phytochemicals and phospholipids. [Bhattacharya et al., 2022] [27] [Izadi et al., 2024] [4]

Involvement of Nanotechnology in Drug delivery

Neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's remain difficult to treat because of their complex nature and the protective blood-brain barrier (BBB), which prevents many drugs from reaching the brain.

Conventional therapies often fail because of poor penetration, rapid breakdown, and unwanted side effects. Nanotechnology provides a promising solution by providing targeted, controlled, and efficient delivery of treatments directly to the affected brain areas. [Masoudi et al., 2020] [13] [Dhariwal et al., 2025] [12] Nanomaterials have unique properties like nanoscale size (around 1-100nm), high surface area, and modifiable surfaces that enhance their interaction with biological membranes and improve therapeutic effects. Nanocarriers can target neurons or pathological protein aggregates via receptormediated or adsorptive transcytosis, increasing drug delivery to specific brain regions while reducing off-target toxicity. For example, conjugation with transferrin or lactoferrin facilitates receptormediated transport across the blood-brain barrier, enhancing delivery efficiency. [Pinheiro et al., 2021] [14] [Lopez-Espinosa et al., 2024] [15] . Basically, nanotechnology makes it possible to combine treatment and diagnosis into one approach, known as theranostics (combination of therapy and diagnostics), which helps to improve how we monitor diseases and deliver therapies more precisely. Nanotheranostics uses nanoparticles paired with imaging agents like fluorescent dyes or MRI contrast materials, doctors can track the delivery of drugs and evaluate treatment effects in real time within the central nervous system. [Kumar et al., 2020] [16] Methods of preparation of Nanoparticles Not primary. Can be linked to imaging agents for research but not a primary diagnostic tool on its own.

Mathew et al.

(2012) [5] Resveratrol AD, PD, Huntington's disease (HD) Enhanced brain bioavailability, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, protects dopaminergic neurons.

(2023) [21] Ginkgo biloba extract AD Increased concentration of active compounds (flavonoids, terpenoids) in the brain. Reduces neuronal damage and improve cognitive function.

Not primary

(2020) [22] 2 Lipid-Based Nanoparticles Quercetin AD, PD Enhanced delivery across the blood brain barrier. Acts as a potent antioxidant and antiinflammatory agent, reducing neuroinflammation.

Not primary Modarai et al.

(2011) [23] Berberine AD Improved brain uptake and stability. Inhibits acetylcholinesterase, a key enzyme in AD pathology and reduces oxidative stress.

Not primary Alfieri et al.

(2021) [24] 3 InorganicNanoparticles (2018) [25] 4 Dendrimers Glycyrrhizin PD High drug-loading capacity and controlled release. Protecting against neurotoxin-induced neuronal cell death. Not primary. .

GoldNanoparticles

Nanocrystals/Nanosuspensions Piperine AD

Acts as a Bioenhancer, significantly improving the bioavailability of other herbal drugs like curcumin and resveratrol in the brain.

(2018) [26] Current status of Herbal Nanomedication Herbal nanomedicines are emerging as highly promising options for treating neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), thanks to nanotechnology-driven improvements in delivery, stability, and therapeutic effectiveness of plant-derived compounds. Current research is especially highlighting nanoformulations of natural molecules such as curcumin, quercetin, resveratrol, and piperine, along with extracts from Ginkgo biloba and Nigella sativa. These compounds are important because they can reduce oxidative stress, control inflammation, and protect brain cells, which helps in managing the complicated causes of diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. [Moradi et al., 2020] [8] [Liu et al., 2023] [2] Recent studies are exploring that, advanced carriers like lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric nanocarriers, and ecofriendly metal nanoparticles, which make it easier for herbal compounds to cross the blood-brain barrier, remain stable, and reach their target efficiently. For example, curcumin packed in polymeric nanoparticles or liposomes shows better brain absorption and controlled release, making it promising for future clinical use. Similarly, liposomal forms of resveratrol improve its stability and absorption, helping to overcome issues like quick breakdown and low solubility of the natural compound. [Nahar et al., 2025] [3] [Liu et al., 2023] [2] Both preclinical and clinical studies have shown encouraging neuroprotective benefits, such as lowering amyloid-beta buildup, protecting mitochondria, and reducing brain inflammation. Still, there are challenges in turning these findings into real treatments, including ensuring consistent quality of herbal extracts, developing large-scale production methods, proving safety, and meeting regulatory requirements. Progress in analytical tools, smarter nanocarrier designs, and combined treatment approaches is helping to overcome these barriers, bringing herbal nanomedicines closer to practical clinical use.

[Kaspute et al., 2025] [17] [Mu et al., 2025] [18] Future Prospectives Some important futuristic approaches are given below Smart and Stimuli-Responsive Nanocarriers: New types of nanocarriers are being developed which are responsive to endogenous stimulation (pH, enzymes) or external factors (light, temperature) for controlled drug release in affected brain portions. [Dhariwal et al., 2025] [12] [Bhattacharya et al., 2022] [27] Multi-Targeted and Combination Therapies: Designing tiny, advanced systems that contain various natural components (phytochemicals) or even blend with conventional drugs. This can tackle several causes of neuro diseases at once and makes the therapy more effective. [Nahar et al., 2025] [3] [Panda & Mohapatra, 2024] [9] Green and Sustainable Nanotechnology: Plant-mediated synthesis techniques can be widely used for producing safer nanoparticles which will minimize the environmental impact. [Izadi al., 2024] [4] Personalized Nanomedicine: Creation of disease profiles and customization of nanocarrier according to each patient will help to get precise therapy and improve clinical outcomes. [Dhariwal et al., 2025] [12] Clinical Translation and Regulatory Harmonization:

Comprehensive preclinical and clinical investigationconfirm the safety, effectiveness and the drug's activity in our body. It also makes the easier path toward regulatory approval and successful commercialization. [Kaspute et al., 2025] [17] [Panda & mohapatra, 2024] [9] .

Nanocarrier Surface Engineering: Improvement in specific targeting by the use of ligand or antibody conjugation, which will ultimately increase BBB crossing and neuron-specific delivery. [Dhariwal et al., 2025] [12] 2020) [8] 2.

Polymeric Nanoparticles

Nano-ashwagandha Withania somnifera

Stress and neuroprotection

Ayurveda and herbal supplementary firms

Moradi et al. (2020) [8] 3.

Polymeric Nanoparticles

Epigallocatech in gallate

Antioxidant, cognitivesupport Nutraceutical companies Moradi et al. (2020) [8] 4.

Polymeric Nanoparticles

Nano-ginger extract Zingiber officinale Neuroprotection, Antiinflammatory

Herbal supplement companies

Panda & Mohapatra (2024) [9] 5.

Liposomal nanoparticles

Nanoliposomal turmeric-curcumin

Curcumin and turmeric extract

Neuroprotection, Oxidative stress Nutraceutical companies Panda & Mohapatra (2024) [9] 6. Liposomal carriers Ginkgosome $^{TM}$

Ginkgo biloba extract

Cognitive impairment, Dementia Liposome Company Panda & Mohapatra (2024) [9] 7.

Liposomal formulation Nano-bacopa Bacopa monnieri Memory enhancement Herbal product companies

Panda & Mohapatra (2024) [9] 8. Lipid nanoparticles Nano-resveratrol Resveratrol Neuroprotection, antiaging Various nutraceutical companies Moradi et al. (2020) [8] 9. Lipid nanoparticles Nanosomal piperine Piperine Bio enhancer, neuroprotection Nutraceutical companies Moradi et al. (2020) [8] 10. Lipid nanoparticles Nanolipid Ginseng extract Panax ginseng Cognitive and physical performance

Traditional herbal medicine companies

Panda & Mohapatra (2024) [9] 11. Lipid nanoparticles Nano-pomegranate polyphenols Punicalagins Antioxidant, neuroprotection Phytopharmaceutical manufacturers Izadi et al. (2024) [4] 12. Lipid nanoparticles Nanolipid Gotu Kola Centella asiatica Brain health, neuroprotection Herbal formulations Panda & Mohapatra (2024) [9] 13. Nanomicelles CurcuWIN Curcumin Brain health, antiinflammatory

Omniactive health technologies

Panda & Mohapatra (2024) [9] 14. [4] 15.

Solid lipid nanoparticles

Solid lipid nanoparticles

Nano-turmeric Turmeric extract Anti-inflammatory, neuroprotection Nutraceutical companies Panda & Mohapatra (2024) [9] 16.

Metal nanoparticles (Gold) Svarna Bhasma Ayurvedic gold Bhasma Neurodegeneration (traditional) Indian Ayurvedic pharmaceutical companies Bhattacharya et al.

(2022) [27] 17. [28] 18. Phytosome Curcumin phytosome Curcumin Cognitive function enhancement Indena, Naturex Panda & Mohapatra (2024) [9] 19.

Polymer-lipid hybridnanoparticles

Polymeric and lipid nanoparticles

Herbal nano complex (multiple herbs)

Combination of neuroprotective herbs

Neurodegeneration management

Ayurvedic and nutraceutical companies

Izadi et al. (2024) [4] 20.

Nanoemulsion Herbal nanoemulsion blends

Various multiple herbs

Cognitive health, neurodegeneration Nutraceutical manufacturers Moradi et al. (2020) [8]

Conclusion

Neurodegenerative diseases are the growing global health challenge with complex mechanisms, which limit current treatment options. Herbal nanomedications offer new hope by combining the natural power of plant-based compounds with advanced nanotechnology. This approach improves drug absorption, helps medicines to cross the blood-brain barrier, ensures targeted delivery, and allows controlled release accelerating the effectiveness while reducing side effects. Nanocarriers like polymeric, lipid-based, and greensynthesized nanoparticles have been used to deliver herbal compounds such as curcumin, resveratrol, and ginkgolides. These show strong antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and antiamyloid effects that may slow down the progression of disease. The increasing number of patents and clinical studies highlights the growing interest and potential in this field. In future, developments can be done by including smart, responsive nanocarriers, AI-assisted design, and ecofriendly production methods. To achieve real-world use, challenges like regulatory approval, safety testing, and large-scale manufacturing must be handled with proper planning. Overall, herbal nanomedications mark a major step toward safer, more effective, and proper brain therapies, blending traditional plant wisdom with cuttingedge science to fight neurodegenerativedisorders and improve quality of life.

References

1. Goyal R, Mittal P, Gautam R, Kamal M, Perveen A, Garg V, Alexiou A, et al. Natural products in the management of neurodegenerative diseases. Nutrition & Metabolism. 2024;21:26.
2. Liu N, Ruan J, Li H, Fu J. Nanoparticles loaded with natural medicines for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2023;17:1112435.
3. Nahar L, Charoensup R, Kalieva K, Habibi E, Guo M, Wang D, et al. Natural products in neurodegenerative diseases: recent advances and future outlook. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2025;16:1529194.
4. Izadi R, Bahramikia S, Akbari V. Green synthesis of nanoparticles using medicinal plants as an ecofriendly and therapeutic potential approach for neurodegenerative diseases: a comprehensive review. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2024;18:13.
5. Mathew A, Fukuda T, Nagaoka Y, Hasumura T, Morimoto H, Yoshida Y, Maekawa T, Venugopal K, Kumar D. Curcumin Loaded-PLGA Nanoparticles Conjugated with Tet-1 Peptide for Potential Use in Alzheimer's Disease. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e32616.
6. Lamptey R, Chaulagain B, Trivedi R, Gothwal A, Layek B, Singh J. A Review of the Common Neurodegenerative Disorders: Current Therapeutic Approaches and the Potential Role of Nanotherapeutics. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022;23(3):1851.
7. Selvam S, Ayyavoo V. Biomarkers in neurodegenerative diseases: a broad overview. Exploration of Neuroprotective Therapy. 2024;4:119147.
8. Moradi S, Momtaz S, Bayrami Z, Farzaei M, Abdollahi M. Nanoformulations of Herbal Extracts in Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 2020;8:238.
9. Panda P, Mohapatra R. Herbal nanoparticles: a targeted approach for neurodegenerative disorder treatment. Journal of Drug Targeting. 2024;32(10):1233-1246.
10. Wilson D, Cookson M, Van Den Bosch L, Zetterberg H, Holtzman D, Dewachter I. Hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases. Cell. 2023;186(4):693-714.
11. Hasan Z, Swain S, Cavalu S. Applications of PhytoNanotechnology for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders. Materials. 2022;15(3):804.
12. Dhariwal R, Jain M, Mir Y, Singh A, Jain B, Kumar P, Tariq M, Verma D, Deshmukh K, Yadav V, Malik T. Targeted drug delivery in neurodegenerative diseases: the role of nanotechnology. Frontiers in Medicine. 2025;12:1522223.
13. Masoudi Asil S, Ahlawat J, Guillama Barroso G, Narayan M. Nanomaterial based drug delivery systems for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Biomaterials Science. 2020;8(15):4109-4128.
14. Pinheiro R, Coutinho A, Pinheiro M, Neves A. Nanoparticles for Targeted Brain Drug Delivery: What Do We Know? International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021;22(21):11654.
15. Lopez-Espinosa J, Park P, Holcomb M, Godin B, Villapol S. Nanotechnology-driven therapies for neurodegenerative diseases: a comprehensive review. Therapeutic Delivery. 2024;15(12):997-1024.
16. Kumar A, Chaudhary R, Singh R, Singh S, Wang S, Hoe Z, et al. Nanotheranostic Applications for Detection and Targeting Neurodegenerative Diseases. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2020;14:305.
17. Kaspute G, Ramanavicius A, Prentice U. Natural drug delivery systems for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Molecular Biology Reports. 2025;52(1):217.
18. Mu Y, Jin T, Peng T, Zhang Y, Li J, Yu R, et al. NanoChinese herbal medicines and their delivery strategies for central nervous system disease therapy. Nanoscale Horizons. 2025.
19. WO2012020423A1. Role of an herbal formulation in the prevention and management of age-related neurodegenerative disorders with special reference to senile dementia. 2011.
20. EP2844265A1. Pomegranate oil for preventing and treating neurodegenerative diseases. 2013.
21. Nirale K, Wadaskar P, Rajgure M. Design, Fabrication, and Analysis of Resveratrol and Piperine-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles with the Purpose of Providing an Enhanced Parkinson's Disease Treatment. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Technology. 2023;15(2):97-101.
22. Ghendov-Mosanu A, Cristea E, Patras A, Sturza R, Niculaua M. Rose hips, a valuable source of antioxidants to improve gingerbread characteristics. Molecules. 2020;25(23):5659.
23. Modarai M, Suter A, Kortenkamp A, Heinrich M. The interaction potential of herbal medicinal products: a luminescence-based screening platform assessing effects on cytochrome P450 and its use with devil's claw (Harpagophyti radix) preparations. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2011;63(3):429-438.
24. Alfieri M, Leone A, Ambrosone A. Plant-derived nano and microvesicles for human health and therapeutic potential in nanomedicine. Pharmaceutics. 2021;13(4):498.
25. Suganthy N, Sri Ramkumar V, Pugazhendhi A, Benelli G, Archunan G. Biogenic synthesis of gold nanoparticles from Terminalia arjuna bark extract: assessment of safety aspects and neuroprotective potential via antioxidant, anticholinesterase, and antiamyloidogenic effects. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2018;25(11):10418-10433.
26. Xu C, Sun Y, Qi Y, Yu Y, He Y, Hu M, et al. Selective self-induced stimulus amplification prodrug platform for inhibiting multidrug resistance and lung metastasis. Journal of Controlled Release. 2018;284:224-239.
27. Bhattacharya A, Morgan NA, Rego LL. Examining why and when market share drives firm profit. Journal of Marketing. 2022 Jul;86(4):73-94.
28. Parvin N, Joo SW, Mandal TK. Injectable biopolymerbased hydrogels: a next-generation platform for minimally invasive therapeutics. Gels. 2025 May 23;11(6):383.