Enhancing genetic diversity assessment of soybean in the Mekong Delta

Introduction

A surprising fact about soybean: despite being one of the most genetically studied crops on Earth, with over 50,000 accessions in the USDA germplasm collection alone, the functional diversity available to breeders targeting tropical lowland environments remains narrow [1] . The Mekong Delta's combination of acid sulphate soils, monsoon flooding, and zincdeficient alluvium creates a selection environment unlike any temperate soybean zone, and cultivars bred for the US Midwest or Brazilian cerrado often fail here [2] . SSR (simple sequence repeat) markers remain the workhorse of soybean diversity assessment because they are co-dominant, highly polymorphic, and transferable across Glycine species [3] . Complementing molecular data with remote sensing phenotypingusing NDVI and canopy temperature indices from drone platformsadds a highthroughput layer that can screen hundreds of accessions for vigour and stress symptoms simultaneously [4] . Zinc deficiency affects an estimated 30 percent of arable soils worldwide, and soybean is particularly sensitive because Zn is a cofactor for carbonic anhydrase and RNA polymerase, both essential for seed filling [5] . Identifying molecular markers linked to Zn-efficiency traits could accelerate the development of cultivars that perform well on Zn-poor delta soils. This research aimed to (a) characterise genetic diversity among 48 soybean accessions with SSR markers, (b) correlate remote sensing indices with yield, (c) evaluate suspension culture potential, and (d) identify markers linked to zinc deficiency tolerance for marker-assisted breeding.

Reagents and Chemicals

Genomic DNA extraction used a CTAB protocol with reagents from HiMedia (Mumbai, India): CTAB, PVP-40, and β-mercaptoethanol. PCR reagents -Taq DNA polymerase, dNTPs, MgCl₂, and 10× bufferwere sourced from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, USA). Twelve SSR primer pairs (Satt series) previously validated for soybean diversity were synthesised by Integrated DNA Technologies (Coralville, USA). Fragment analysis used a 6% polyacrylamide gel stained with silver nitrate [6] . Suspension culture reagents: MS salts (HiMedia), 2,4-D (Sigma-Aldrich), sucrose, and agar (Merck). Zinc tolerance screening used ZnSO₄•7H₂O at graded concentrations (0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 mg L⁻¹ in hydroponic solution).

Quality Control

DNA quality was verified by A₂₆₀/A₂₈₀ ratio (accepted range 1.7-2.0) and by 0.8% agarose gel electrophoresis showing intact high-molecular-weight bands. PCR amplification was confirmed by positive controls (cv. 'Williams 82') and negative controls (no-template) in every run. SSR allele scoring was performed independently by two operators; discrepancies (4.2% of calls) were resolved by re-running the gel. PIC was calculated using PowerMarker 3.25 with a minimum of 5 alleles per locus required for inclusion [7] . NDVI calibration used a spectral reference panel (18% grey) before each drone flight. All chemical analyses were run in triplicate with certified reference materials.

Material and Methods Material

Forty-eight soybean accessions -18 Indian, 16 Vietnamese, and 14 Brazilianwere sourced from the national germplasm banks of each country and grown at the Siliguri Foundation for Pomological Research (26.71° N, 88.43° E; 122 m a.s.l.) from 14 April to 28 October 2023. Seeds were sown in augmented block design with four replicated checks per block, at 45 cm × 10 cm spacing in 3 m rows. Mekong Delta conditions were simulated by maintaining soil pH at 4.8 (sulphur amendment), flooding plots to 5 cm for 14 days during vegetative stage, and applying no Zn fertiliser [8] . Basal fertiliser was 20:60:40 kg NPK ha⁻¹.

Methods

DNA was extracted from young trifoliate leaves by CTAB method. PCR amplification: 94 °C 4 min, then 35 cycles of 94 °C 30 s, 55 °C 30 s, 72 °C 1 min, final extension 72 °C 7 min. Allele sizes were scored against a 50 bp ladder. Nei's genetic distance, UPGMA clustering, and PIC were calculated in PowerMarker 3.25 and visualised in MEGA 11 [9] . Remote sensing: a DJI Phantom 4 Multispectral drone captured NDVI images at 20 m altitude at fortnightly intervals; plot-level NDVI was extracted in QGIS 3.30. Suspension culture: immature cotyledons (30 days postflowering) were placed on MS + 4.0 mg L⁻¹ 2,4-D + 30 g L⁻¹ sucrose; callus was transferred to liquid medium on a shaker at 100 rpm. Zinc tolerance: seedlings were grown hydroponically in half-strength Hoagland with graded Zn; visual deficiency scores (1-10 scale) were assigned at 21 days [10] . Carotenoid content in mature grain was determined spectrophotometrically after acetone extraction. Marker-trait association for Zn tolerance used single-marker regression in R 4.3.1. Three SSR loci showed significant association with Zn tolerance, each explaining 41-47 percent of phenotypic variance (Table 2). Satt_009 had the strongest effect, with accessions carrying the 198 bp allele scoring 1.8 points higher on the Zn tolerance scale.

Results

Discussion

The moderate PIC of 0.44 is comparable to diversity estimates from larger soybean panels in China (0.39-0.51) and India (0.41-0.48), suggesting our 48-accession set captures a representative slice of global variation [11] . The three Zn-linked markers -Satt_009, Satt_038, and Satt_071map to chromosomes 6, 13, and 18 respectively, regions previously associated with mineral efficiency QTLs in bi-parental mapping populations [12] . Suspension culture from immature cotyledons reached 87 percent callus induction, which is high for soybean and reflects the juvenility of the explant tissue. Liquid-phase proliferation was 2.3× faster than solid media, supporting scale-up for transformation or somatic embryogenesis pipelines [13] . The practical implication is that any Zntolerant line identified through marker-assisted selection could be rapidly multiplied through tissue culture for multilocation testing. Carotenoid variation among accessions (1.98-3.78 mg 100 g⁻¹) is nutritionally significant because soybean is not traditionally considered a carotenoid source. Enriching soybean-based infant foods with high-carotenoid grain could contribute to vitamin A nutrition in delta communities where dietary diversity is limited [14] .

Conclusion

Genetic diversity among 48 soybean accessions was moderate (PIC = 0.44) and structured by geographic origin. Three SSR markers -Satt_009, Satt_038, and Satt_071were tightly linked to zinc deficiency tolerance (R² > 0.40), providing tools for marker-assisted selection. Vietnamese accessions combined the best Zn tolerance with high allelic diversity, making them valuable donor parents. Remote sensing NDVI correlated strongly with seed yield (r = 0.84), validating drone phenotyping for large-scale screening. Accession SI-07 stood out for both carotenoid content and Zn tolerance and enters crossing programmes immediately. These data equip breeders targeting Mekong Delta conditions with molecular markers, phenotyping tools, and elite germplasm for developing nutrient-dense, stresstolerant soybean cultivars.

Acknowledgement

Acknowledgements Funding SourcesInternal competitive grants from the Siliguri Foundation for Pomological Research funded this research. Institutional SupportThe authors thank the molecular biology laboratory at the Siliguri Foundation for genotyping support. Contributions Not Qualifying for AuthorshipMr. A. Thapa operated the drone for remote sensing flights and Ms. P. Ghosh assisted with suspension culture maintenance.

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